From the SelectedWorks of Kimberlee G
Weatherall
July 2011
An Australian Analysis of the February 2011
Leaked US TPPA IP Chapter Text - copyright and
enforcement
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
An Australian Analysis of the February 2011 Leaked US Text for the TPPA IP Chapter
(copyright and enforcement provisions only)
20 July 2011
Kimberlee Weatherall1
The following is a summary table of the copyright and enforcement provisions of the (leaked) US
February 2011 proposals for the IP chapter of the Trans-Pacific Partnership Agreement (TPPA).
The US proposal is clearly a ‘mash-up’ that combines aspects of the US’ pre-existing bilateral trade
agreements (such as the US-Australia Free Trade Agreement, or AUSFTA, concluded in 2004), with
provisions taken from the recently-concluded Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement (ACTA) and
some new innovations.
For Australia, the expectation might be that since we have already signed the AUSFTA, including
detailed IP provisions, anything in this agreement would have limited impact. This is wrong for two
reasons. First, there are a surprising number of new provisions, slight amendments and alterations,
and changes from the text of the AUSFTA. Second, including such provisions in an agreement with 8
other countries is a very different proposition from agreeing with a single other country. Bilateral
agreements are necessarily easier to modify (or agree to waive) than agreements comprehending
multiple parties. It is entirely inappropriate to further entrench these detailed provisions in this
plurilateral context.
The table below includes comments, not only for the benefit of an Australian audience, but also for
the benefit of countries not presently party to a US FTA. The latter countries might learn something
from Australia’s experience to date. For more on the problems with the AUSFTA, and its
implementation, see my other published work.2
Summary of important points for Australia
1. Parallel importation: Article 4.2 would significantly constrain Australia’s ability to allow
parallel importation in copyright as advocated at various times by the Productivity
Commission;
2. Copyright term: Article 4.5 would extend the copyright term for films and sound recordings
by 25 years. Extensions of copyright term have significant costs that outweigh any benefits
to Australian creators;
3. Anti-circumvention and RMI laws: There are some differences in wording in Article 4.9 (anti-
circumvention provisions) that might require changes to Australian law, expanding liability
(in the absence of knowledge on the part of the infringer); making it more difficult to create
new exceptions; and perhaps extending RMI laws to non-electronic rights management
information;
1 Senior Lecturer, TC Beirne School of Law, The University of Queensland. All
feedback/comments/queries
to x.xxxxxxxxxx@xxx.xx.xxx.xx.
2
In particular, Robert Burrell and Kimberlee Weatherall, ‘Exporting Controversy? Reactions to the
Copyright Provisions of the US–Australia Free Trade Agreement: Lessons for US Trade Policy’ (2008)
2
University
of
Illinois
Journal
of
Law,
Technology
and
Policy
259,
available
at
http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1010833.
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4. Rights in sound recordings: without care, the treaty could increase the cost of broadcasting
sound recordings by requiring payment to be made to US copyright owners (although US
broadcasters do not pay Australian broadcasters) (Articles 6.1, 6.3);
5. Presumptions of validity of trademarks and patents: Article 10.2 would require courts to
presume the validity of trade marks and patents, contrary to current policy and despite
concerns about the quality of patents in particular;
6. Damages and Statutory damages: the US continues to push, in Articles 12.4 and 12.12, for
statutory damages in copyright and, in this text, in anti-circumvention law. This must be
resisted. In addition, language in Article 12.3 could raise the levels of damages in patent
infringement proceedings;
7. Right to information and other provisional measures: Article 12.8 contemplates an
unqualified right for right holders to extract information from or about alleged infringers
without ensuring the procedural protections found in Australian law; Article 13
contemplates provisional measures without ensuring procedural protections for defendants;
8. Right to information –customs: Article 14.3, like similar text in the ACTA, expands the sorts
of information customs officials can supply to right holders on seizure of allegedly infringing
goods. Given that the seizure provisions are used by competitors disputing over trade marks
(and not just against counterfeiters), there are disturbing possibilities for the disclosure of
sensitive commercial information;
9. Seizure of in-transit goods: for the first time, the US seems to be contemplating, in Article
14.4, seizure of in-transit goods – even as a mandatory matter, going even further than the
ACTA. This has implications for access to medicines; seizures in transit are also a matter of
dispute in the WTO;
10. Customs to determine when goods are infringing: like ACTA, Article 14.5-14.6 contemplate
customs officials deciding that goods are infringing, imposing fines, and destroying goods.
This is not likely to be in the interests of Australian companies engaged in international
trade, given the risks of inappropriate seizures.
11. Criminal provisions: Article 15.1 would entrench the expansion of criminal liability into the
private, non-commercial activities of Australians and even expand criminal liability for
innocuous acts like copying a CD to swap with a friend.
12. Criminal liability for labels: Article 15.2 might not change Australian law, but it would
significantly expand international obligations to criminalise trade mark infringing (not just
counterfeit) labels – multiplying the number of offences that might be committed in any one
course of conduct and risking overcharging and overcriminalisation;
13. Camcording: despite a plethora of laws addressing infringement of copyright in films, Article
15.3 would create yet another one – for recording film in a cinema – making this criminal
even where it is for purely domestic or private use.
14. Aiding and abetting: Article 15.4, like ACTA, would further entrench criminal liability for
‘aiding or abetting’ IP infringement – before we even know what that might mean or who
might be at risk;
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15. Sentencing guidelines: Article 15.5 would pre-empt Australia’s domestic debate about the
appropriateness of sentencing guidelines in the federal jurisdiction by requiring such
guidelines – just for IP;
16. Online Safe Harbours: Article 16.3 would further entrench the online safe harbour scheme,
ossifying these provisions in a form as written back in 1998 despite everything that has
happened since.
What’s missing?
In addition to the above, it is worth noting what’s
missing from these provisions that might be
affirmatively sought by countries negotiating an IP chapter:
1. Balancing considerations: during the negotiation of the ACTA, there was concern that the
text was one-sided and failed to include protections for defendants in IP cases and other
third parties. As a result, some (inadequate) protections were included. Why aren’t they in
the TPPA? The relevant provisions include:
ACTA Article 2.3: The objectives and principles set forth in Part I of the TRIPS
Agreement, in particular Articles 7 and 8, shall apply,
mutatis mutandis, to this
Agreement.
ACTA Article 4:
1. Nothing in this Agreement shall require a Party to disclose:
(a) information, the disclosure of which would be contrary to its law, including
laws protecting privacy rights, or international agreements to which it is
party;
(b) confidential information, the disclosure of which would impede law
enforcement or otherwise be contrary to the public interest; or
(c) confidential information, the disclosure of which would prejudice the
legitimate commercial interests of particular enterprises, public or private.
2. When a Party provides written information pursuant to the provisions of this
Agreement, the Party receiving the information shall, subject to its law and
practice, refrain from disclosing or using the information for a purpose other than
that for which the information was provided, except with the prior consent of the
Party providing the information
ACTA Article 6:
1. Each Party shall ensure that enforcement procedures are available under its law
so as to permit effective action against any act of infringement of intellectual
property rights covered by this Agreement, including expeditious remedies to
prevent infringements and remedies which constitute a deterrent to further
infringements. These procedures shall be applied in such a manner as to avoid
the creation of barriers to legitimate trade and to provide for safeguards against
their abuse.
2. Procedures adopted, maintained, or applied to implement the provisions of this
Chapter shall be fair and equitable, and shall provide for the rights of all
participants subject to such procedures to be appropriately protected. These
procedures shall not be unnecessarily complicated or costly, or entail
unreasonable time-limits or unwarranted delays.
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3. In implementing the provisions of this Chapter, each Party shall take into account
the need for proportionality between the seriousness of the infringement, the
interests of third parties, and the applicable measures, remedies and penalties.
4. No provision of this Chapter shall be construed to require a Party to make its
officials subject to liability for acts undertaken in the performance of their official
duties.
2. Provisions to address the increasing unilateralism of US IP enforcement policy. For example,
one of the latest tools being used by US law enforcement against online IP infringement is
the ‘seizure’ of domain names. A number of such seizures have already occurred, including
one particularly controversial seizure of generic domain names associated with the Spanish
site ‘Rojadirecta’, a site which had previously been held by a Spanish court to be operating
legally. Legislation has been proposed in the US that would formalise US law enforcement
officials’ powers to order such seizures. This proposed legislation, known as the
Protect IP
Act in its latest iteration, would amend the American federal criminal code to authorise the
Attorney-General to commence an expedited
in rem action against a domain name used by
an internet site that is ‘dedicated to infringing activities’. Action would be available even if
the site was not based in the US, provided that the domain was used within the US to access
an infringing site, directed business to American residents and harmed American IP rights
holders. For overseas sites, the legislation would provide the Attorney-General with the
authority to serve domestic third parties, such as internet service providers, financial
transaction providers and internet advertising providers. These third parties would in turn
be directed to take reasonable measures to stop doing business with the offending website.
The unilateralism reflected in such legislation, and the seizures which have already occurred,
is not conducive to international
cooperation in IP enforcement. The TPPA, as a proposed
trade agreement, should deal with such unilateralism.
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Issue
Leaked US TPPA Proposal (10 February
Australian Law (Copyright Act 1968
Analysis
2011)
(Cth))
Copyright Provisions
Reproduction in
Article 4.1 Each Party shall provide that
Copyright owners have the right to
No change to Australian law. Australia expanded
material form
authors, performers, and producers of
reproduce literary, dramatic, musical
the scope of its reproduction right as a result of
phonograms have the right to authorize or
and artistic works in material form and the Australia-US Free Trade Agreement
prohibit all reproductions of their works,
to make copies of films, sound
(AUSFTA).
performances, and phonograms, in any
recordings, and television broadcasts
manner or form, permanent or temporary
(ss 31, 85-88).
(including temporary storage in electronic
Material form defined to include any
form.
form (whether visible or not) of
storage of the work ... (whether or not
the work ...can be reproduced). (s 10)
Parallel
Article 4.2 Each Party shall provide to
Australia prohibits importation of
Adoption of this provision would be a significant
importation
authors, performers, and producers of
copyright works (ss 37, 102) but has
constraint on Australian copyright policy.
phonograms the right to authorize or
exceptions for software (s 44E),
Australia’s Productivity Commission has
prohibit the importation into that Party’s
electronic books and music (s 44F),
produced numerous reports in favour of more
territory of copies of the work,
and sound recordings (s 112D) where
parallel importation of copyright works, most
performance, or phonogram made without the product is placed on the market
recently books. As a small but affluent market,
authorization, or made outside that Party’s overseas with the consent of the
Australia has a history of experiencing higher
territory with the authorization of the
copyright owner in the relevant
prices for copyright works than markets such as
author, performer, or producer of the
jurisdiction (ie parallel importation
the US and UK.
phonogram. (footnote 11 qualifies: if goods /grey market goods).
placed on market with consent of the right
holder, provision applies only to books,
journals, sheet music, sound recordings,
computer programs, and audio and visual
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works where produced)
Sale and first sale
Article 4.3 Each Party shall provide to
Australia provides such a right: ss 38,
It is difficult to assess the impact of this
authors, performers and producers of
103, although liability only arises
provision. It is possible that without the
phonograms the right to authorize or
where the person ‘knew, or ought
qualifying footnote, the provision read literally
prohibit the making available to the public
reasonably to have known’ that the
could impact on second hand sales.
of the original and copies of their works,
article is infringing.
performances and phonograms through
sale or other transfer of ownership.
AUSFTA includes an identically-
worded provision: Article 17.4.2,
except AUSFTA has a qualifying
footnote stating that ‘Nothing in this
Agreement shall affect a Party’s right
to determine the conditions, if any,
under which the exhaustion of this
right applies after the first sale or
other transfer of ownership ... with
the authorisation of the right holder.’
No hierarchy of
Article 4.4 In order to ensure that no
This principle is embodied in
No change to Australian law.
rights
hierarchy is established between rights of
Australian law: s 113. An identically
authors, on the one hand, and rights of
worded provision exists in the
performers and producers of phonograms,
AUSFTA: Article 17.4.3.
on the other hand, each Party shall provide
that in cases where authorization is needed
from both the author of a work embodied
in a phonogram and a performer or
producer owning rights in the phonogram,
the need for the authorization of the
author does not cease to exist because the
authorization of the performer or producer
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is also required. Likewise, each Party shall
provide that in cases where authorization
is needed from both the author of a work
embodied in a phonogram and a performer
or producer owning rights in the
phonogram, the need for the authorization
of the performer or producer does not
cease to exist because the authorization of
the author is also required
Copyright term
Article 4.5 Each Party shall provide that,
Australia provides a copyright term:
This provision would extend the Australian
where the term of protection of a work
For published works: life of the
copyright term for films and sound recordings
(including a photographic work),
author + 70 years: s 33
by 25 years (for both producers, and in the case
performance, or phonogram is to be
For works (other than artistic
of sound recordings, performers).
calculated:
works) unpublished at death of
(a) on the basis of the life of a natural
author: 70 years from publication: It would not create efficiencies by harmonising
person, the term shall be not less than
s 33
the Australian copyright term with the US term
the life of the author and 70 years after
For films, sound recordings: 70
as is sometimes argued. Unlike the US, Australia
the author’s death; and
years from publication: ss 93, 94
calculates the copyright term for corporate
(b) on a basis other than the life of a
For tv and sound broadcasts: 50
works by reference to the employee’s life,
natural person, the term shall be:
years from broadcast: s 95.
rather than from the date of publication or
(i) not less than 95 years from the end of
For performers: rights in sound
creation.
the calendar year of the first
recordings of their performances
authorized publication of the work,
for 70 years from publication.
Australia extended its terms as a result of the
performance, or phonogram, or
AUSFTA: Article 17.4.4. Both independent
(ii) failing such authorized publication
analysis commissioned by a Senate Committee
within 25 years from the creation of
from economist Professor Phillippa Dee at the
the work, performance, or
time the AUSFTA was signed, and more recently
phonogram, not less than 120 years
the Australian Productivity Commission, have
from the end of the calendar year of
assessed that this extension imposed significant
the creation of the work,
costs on the Australian economy and was
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
performance, or phonogram.
against Australia’s interests.
Extension of new
Article 4.6 Each Party shall apply Article 18 .
This is the usual approach of Australia: to extend
rights to existing
of the Berne Convention ... and Article 14.6
new rights to material existing in copyright.
copyright
of ... TRIPS ...
mutatis mutandis, to the
material
subject matter, rights, and obligations in
This will have the effect that films and sound
this Article and Articles [5] and [6].
recordings where copyright ought to have
expired between 2005 and the implementation
of the TPPA would have received
two copyright
term extensions (one through AUSFTA, one
through the TPPA).
Freedom of
Article 4.7 Each Party shall provide that for Australia is subject to an (effectively)
This would not change Australian law, but does
contractual
copyright and related rights, any person
identically worded provision in
entrench a limitation on Australia’s ability to
transfer
acquiring or holding any economic right in
AUSFTA Article 17.4.6.
adopt new copyright policies. The provision
a work, performance, or phonogram:
appears to be aimed at preventing Parties from
(a) may freely and separately transfer that
introducing unwaivable or unassignable rights of
right by contract; and
a type found in Europe. It would prevent a Party
(b) by virtue of a contract, including
from prohibiting the outright assignment of
contracts of employment underlying
copyright (as, for example, is the case in
the creation of works, performances,
Germany and Austria). In addition, this language
and phonograms, shall be able to
is arguably sufficient to prevent the introduction
exercise that right in that person’s own
of unwaivable rights to equitable remuneration
name and enjoy fully the benefits
like those found in the European Union’s Rental
derived from that right.
Rights Directive. This language might also be
treated as excluding the compulsory collective
administration of rights – a form of control on
the exploitation of copyright that also enjoys
some popularity in European copyright policy
making circles.
Placeholder –
Article 4.8 No provision yet; placeholder
AUSFTA Article 17.4.10 may suggest
The first part of the AUSFTA text merely repeats
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
exceptions,
only.
likely future text:
TRIPS Article 13, although it does make clear
limitations,
With respect to [the provisions on
that the limitations on exceptions would apply
internet
copyright]:
to all the (new or extended) rights under the
retransmission
(a) each Party shall confine limitations
TPPA.
or exceptions to exclusive rights to
certain special cases that do not
The AUSFTA provision on internet
conflict with a normal exploitation of
retransmission, however, prevents Australia
the work, performance, or
from extending statutory licenses that currently
phonogram, and do not unreasonably
allow the retransmission of broadcasts via cable
prejudice the legitimate interests of
to retransmission via the Internet. This removes
the right holder;
the general freedom of parties to the WCT and
(b) notwithstanding [other provisions], WPPT to ‘to carry forward and appropriately
neither Party may permit the
extend into the digital environment limitations
retransmission of television signals
and exceptions in their national laws which have
(whether terrestrial, cable, or satellite) been considered acceptable under the Berne
on the Internet without the
Convention’. The relevant provision of the
authorisation of the right holder or
AUSFTA thus pre-empts decisions on how best
right holders, if any, of the content of
to regulate websites (such as YouTube) that
the signal and of the signal.
offer alternative means of accessing television.
Anti-circumvention and RMI
Prohibition on
Article 4.9(a): In order to provide adequate Australia is subject to a similarly
The provision as worded in the US draft would
circumvention
legal protection and effective legal
worded provision in AUSFTA Article
potentially expand liability under Australian law
remedies against the circumvention of
17.4.7(a)(i). Implemented in Australian by perhaps requiring Australia to remove the
effective technological measures that
law s 116AN.
requirement of knowledge presently applying to
authors, performers, and producers of
liability, making it a strict liability tort (although
phonograms use in connection with the
The key difference is that the AUSFTA
questions of knowledge arguably fall within the
exercise of their rights and that restrict
provision only applies where the
Party’s area of freedom in implementing the
unauthorized acts in respect of their works, individual ‘knowingly, or having
provision).
performances, and phonograms, each
reasonable grounds to know’ that they
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Party shall provide that any person who:
are circumventing without authority.
More generally, this provision entrenches the
(i) circumvents without authority any
change Australia had to make as a result of the
effective technological measure that
This requirement of knowledge is
AUSFTA: prohibiting circumvention, and not just
controls access to a protected work,
implemented in Australian law:
trafficking in circumvention devices/services.
performance, phonogram, or other
Copyright Act 1968 (Cth) s 116AN(1)(c) This change was contrary to past stated
subject matter; ...
Australian policy, which was to focus on the
...shall be liable and subject to the
trafficking as being more likely to cause harm,
remedies set out in Article [12.12].
rather than seeking to prohibit private acts of
circumvention, with all the privacy issues that
potentially involves.
Prohibition on
Article 4.9(a) ... each Party shall provide
Australia is subject to a similarly
Australian law includes a knowledge
trafficking of
that any person who:
worded provision in AUSFTA Article
requirement (liability arises if the person
circumvention
(ii) manufactures, imports, distributes,
17.4.7(a)(i). Implemented in Australian marketing the circumvention device/service
devices/services:
offers to the public, provides, or
law ss 116AO-116AP.
knows, or ought reasonably to know, of that
otherwise traffics in devices, products,
use). No such requirement is stated in the TPPA
or components, or offers to the public
There is a difference in language: the
language, but this may fall within the Party’s
or provides services, that:
references to ‘acting in concert with
discretion as to how to implement the
(A) are promoted, advertised, or
that person and with that person’s
provisions of the treaty.
marketed by that person, or by
knowledge’. If anything, however, the
another person acting in concert
language of the TPPA narrows the
The AUSFTA expanded Australia’s original
with that person and with that
scope of liability (in the same way that regime, which only applied to circumvention
person’s knowledge, for the purpose Australian legislation does: see
devices/services ‘capable of circumventing, or
of circumvention of any effective
s 116AO(2)).
facilitating the circumvention of, the
technological measure,
technological protection measure’: now
(B) have only a limited commercially
potentially even devices that do not work but
significant purpose or use other
which are
marketed for the purpose can create
than to circumvent any effective
liability (although it seems unlikely that such
technological measure, or
devices would lead to lawsuits).
(C) are primarily designed, produced, or
performed for the purpose of
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT

enabling or facilitating the
circumvention of any effective
technological measure,
...shall be liable and subject to the
remedies set out in Article [12.12].
Criminal liability
Article 4.9(a) Each Party shall provide for
AUSFTA already requires Australia to
These criminal provisions will not change
for
criminal procedures and penalties to be
provide for criminal penalties, with a
Australian law, which is already extremely
circumvention
applied when any person, other than a
similarly-worded exclusion for certain
stringent in both coverage and penalties.
breaches and
nonprofit library, archive, educational
public institutions. Australia has
criminal penalties institution, or public noncommercial
implemented this: ss 132APC-132APE.
The WIPO Internet Treaties do not require
broadcasting entity, is found to have
criminal liability.
engaged willfully and for purposes of
The reference to specific penalties
commercial advantage or private financial
however is new.
gain in any of the foregoing activities. Such
criminal procedures and penalties shall
Australian law provides for:
include the application to such activities of
Imprisonment (up to five yrs per
the remedies and authorities listed in
offence) and fines (up to $60,500
subparagraphs (a), (b), and (f) of Article
per offence for an individual, or
[15.5] as applicable to infringements,
$302,500 for a company);
mutatis mutandis.
seizure of circumvention devices,
implements and infringing copies
Note:
(s 133);
15.5(a): imprisonment and fines
Seizure of documentary evidence:
(deterrent)
Crimes Act 1914 (Cth), Part 1AA;
15.5(b): seizure of goods, implements
Freezing of assets:
Proceeds of
used in committing the offence, assets
Crime Act 2002 ss 15B; 17;
traceable to the infringing activity and
forfeiture of assets traceable to
documentary evidence
infringing activity, even in the
15.5(c): forfeiture of assets traceable
absence of conviction:
Proceeds of
to the infringing activity.
Crime Act 2002 (Cth) ss 48-49.
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Circumvention
Article 4.9(b) In implementing
Australia is subject to an identically
This is a beneficial provision, in that it clarifies
devices and
subparagraph (a), no Party shall be
worded provision in AUSFTA 17.4.7(c). that hardware companies are not legally
design
obligated to require that the design of, or
required to respond to certain technological
the design and selection of parts and
protection measures.
components for, a consumer electronics,
telecommunications, or computing product
It should be noted, however, that the provision
provide for a response to any particular
is not particularly effective. In many cases,
technological measure, so long as the
electronic copies of copyright material are
product does not otherwise violate any
provided in encrypted form. For a device to gain
measures implementing subparagraph (a).
access to the unencrypted version, a key is
required – getting access to the key requires a
manufacturer to agree to meet certain
requirements (eg, not allowing copying). This
method has had some effect in relation to DVDs.
Circumvention
Article 4.9(c) Each Party shall provide that
Australia is subject to a similarly-
This will not change Australian law.
separate from
a violation of a measure implementing this
worded provision in AUSFTA Article
copyright
paragraph is a separate cause of action,
17.4.7(d).
It is clearly aimed at countries which have made
infringement
independent of any infringement that
liability for circumvention contingent on
might occur under the Party’s law on
showing copyright infringement: an approach
copyright and related rights.
allowed under the WIPO Internet Treaties. It has
the impact of creating liability even for a person
who circumvents a measure for the purposes of
exercising rights under an exception (like fair
dealing).
Limited
Article 4.9(d) Exceptions limited to non-
Australia is subject to a very similar
The TPPA wording would not change the broad
exceptions to the infringing activities for certain purposes:
regime under the AUSFTA. It is
shape of Australia’s exceptions to circumvention
prohibitions on
(i) reverse engineering;
implemented in the
Copyright Act,
law, which was changed by the AUSFTA.
circumvention
(ii) security and encryption research;
part V div 2A.
and trafficking
(iii) technical components to prevent
It would, however, require changes to
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT

circumvention
inappropriate access to content by
There is a difference however in
Australia’s administrative system for creating
devices
minors;
relation to (viii) – which allows the
new exceptions: perhaps tightening the
(iv) security testing;
creation of new exceptions where the
evidence required to get an exception and
(v) disabling privacy-invasive online
need is proved: implemented in s 249. certainly requiring they expire, where no such
collection of information;
Under the AUSFTA and Australian law: requirement presently exists. To date,
(vi) government activities for law
The impact on noninfringing uses
Australia’s system has not been working.
enforcement, intelligence, essential
need only be ‘credibly
Although on passing the original implementing
security or similar governmental
demonstrated’ rather than
legislation, Australia did create a series of
purposes;
‘demonstrated ... by substantial
additional exceptions (
Copyright Regulations
(vii) access by nonprofit libraries, archives,
evidence’. The change in language
1969 Schedule 10A), since then, no regular
and educational institutions for
might suggest that proof of actual
system for administrative reviews has been
acquisition decisions;
negative effects, rather than just
established, and submissions that have been
(viii) where ‘an actual or likely adverse
plausible arguments of the
made to the Minister seeking exceptions have
impact on [other] noninfringing uses is
likelihood of such effects, is
been allowed to languish in the Attorney-
demonstrated in a legislative or
required.
General’s Department for extended periods of
administrative proceeding by
The period for an exception need
time. Australia’s experience perhaps holds
substantial evidence; provided that any
not expire/exceptions do not need lessons for other countries: in the absence of an
limitation or exception adopted in
to be renewed: exceptions only
obvious administrative body like the US
reliance upon this clause shall have
end if a submission is made to
Copyright Office, it is difficult to establish any
effect for a renewable period of not
vary or revoke the exception, and
effective administrative proceeding to create
more than three years from the date of
‘an actual or likely adverse impact’ exceptions (and judicial processes risk a
conclusion of such proceeding.’
can no longer be credibly
multiplication of costs).
demonstrated.
Article 4.9(e) Limits the exceptions:
The AUSFTA replaced Australia’s previous
All exceptions apply to the prohibition
system for exceptions to anti-circumvention
on circumvention;
law. Prior to 2004, Australia (a) only prohibited
Most apply to selling devices to
selling circumvention devices, so individuals did
circumvent access control measures:
not need their own exceptions, and (b) allowed
except (v), (vii) and (viii);
‘qualified persons’ (trusted public institutions
Only the reverse engineering and law
like libraries, galleries, archives and others with
enforcement exceptions apply to
the benefit of existing copyright exceptions) to
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
selling devices to circumvent copy
sign a declaration stating their legitimate
controls.
purpose, in order to have a circumvention
device or service supplied. This system avoided
the bureaucratic red-tape of the US approach.
It is worth noting too that Australia’s politicians,
when forced to consider the scheme set out in
the AUSFTA, stated their view that the absence
of ‘manufacturing/trafficking’ exceptions to
match the ‘circumvention’ exceptions for
ordinary people was a ‘lamentable and
inexcusable flaw in the text of Article 17.4.7...
that verges on absurdity. ... these exceptions
appear to be little more than empty promises.’
Definition of
Article 4.9(f) Effective technological
Australia is subject to a very similar
This definition covers access controls and copy
‘effective
measure means any technology, device, or
regime under the AUSFTA Article
controls: a very expansive definition that
technological
component that, in the normal course of
17.4.7(b). It is implemented in the
extends well beyond the requirements of the
measure’
its operation, controls access to a
Copyright Act, s 10.
WIPO Internet Treaties.
protected work, performance, phonogram,
or other protected subject matter, or
The introduction of the new definition in 2004
protects any copyright or any rights related
as a result of the AUSFTA in Australia
to copyright.
overturned a more narrow definition that
required that a measure actually ‘prevent or
inhibit infringement of copyright’.
Rights
Article 4.10(a) creates criminal and civil
Australia is subject to an almost
This will not change Australian law.
Management
liability for a person who:
identical provision under the AUSFTA
Information
(i) knowingly removes or alters any RMI;
Article 17.4.8. Australia’s RMI laws are It is WIPO Internet Treaty ‘plus’, in that (ii)
(RMI)
(ii) distributes or imports for distribution
found in the
Copyright Act Part V, Div
(distributing RMI) is not mentioned in the WIPO
RMI knowing that the RMI has been
2A, ss 116B-116D.
Internet Treaties; nor do the WIPO Internet
14
RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
removed or altered without authority;
Treaties require criminal liability.
or
(iii) distributes, imports for distribution,
broadcasts, communicates or makes
available to the public copies of works,
performances, or phonograms,
knowing that RMI has been removed or
altered without authority;
provided that liability only arises if the
person acts ‘without authority, and
knowing that it would induce, enable,
facilitate, or conceal infringement of
copyright (with civil liability also arising if
the person has ‘reasonable grounds to
know’).
Criminal liability where the act is wilful and
for the purposes of commercial advantage
or private financial gain. Similar criminal
remedies and procedures as for anti-
circumvention law (see above).
Exceptions to
Article 4.10(b) confines exceptions to the
Australia is subject to an almost
This will not change Australian law.
RMI
prohibition against RMI tampering to
identical provision under the AUSFTA
‘lawfully authorized activities carried out
Article 17.4.8; it is enacted in s 116CB.
It removes the general freedom of parties to the
by government employees, agents, or
WCT and WPPT to ‘to carry forward and
contractors for the purpose of law
appropriately extend into the digital
enforcement, intelligence, essential
environment limitations and exceptions in their
security, or similar governmental
national laws which have been considered
purposes.’
acceptable under the Berne Convention’.
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
Definition of RMI
Article 4.10(c) RMI means
Australia is subject to an almost
The present draft of the TPPA is not explicitly
(i) information that identifies a work,
identical provision under the AUSFTA
limited to
electronic RMI, meaning that it could
performance, or phongram, the
Article 17.4.8. The definition is
potentially require an expansion of Australian
author of the work, the performer of
embodied in the
Copyright Act 1968
law to cover acts such as the removal of (non-
the performance, or the producer of
s 10.
electronic) copyright notices.
the phonogram; or the owner of any
right in the work, performance, or
There is one difference however: both Liability would still only arise where person
phonogram;
the AUSFTA and Australian law only
knew that removal of the RMI would induce,
(ii) information about the terms or
apply if the RMI is
electronic. The
enable, facilitate, or conceal infringement of
conditions of the use of the work,
limitation to electronic RMI is
copyright. The problem with this expansion is
performance, or phonogram; or
consistent with the WIPO Internet
likely to be in the multiplication of offences that
(iii) any numbers or codes that represent
Treaties (see WCT Article 12).
a person commits in the act of infringement.
such information,
Multiplying the wrongful acts has the potential
when any of these items is attached to a
to lead to over-charging of defendants in the
copy of the work, performance, or
criminal context, and increases in the extent of
phonogram or appears in connection with
civil liability.
the communication or making available of
a work, performance or phonogram, to the
public.
No obligation to
Article 4.10(d) For greater certainty,
No equivalent provision is found in
Care needs to be taken with this provision,
attach RMI
nothing in this paragraph shall obligate a
AUSFTA. It is consistent with
which echoes the prohibition on formalities in
Party to require the owner of any right in
Australian law which does not require
the Berne Convention and may have unintended
the work, performance, or phonogram to
the inclusion of RMI, and consistent
effects on beneficial policies in the digital
attach rights management information to
with the Berne Convention’s
environment. For example, attempts to address
copies of the work, performance, or
prohibition on formalities: Article 5(2). the orphan works problem online may rely on
phonogram, or to cause rights
creating exceptions applying to works where no
management information to appear in
owner or author is named on the work.
connection with a communication of the
work, performance, or phonogram to the
Australian law also has many provisions which
public.
provide procedural advantages where
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
identifying information
is attached to copyright
works: for example, presumptions of ownership
and authorship (see
Copyright Act Part V Div 4).
The language of the TPPA draft seems to avoid
these consequences (‘nothing in this paragraph
shall obligate’, rather than ‘no Party shall’), but
it would be better not to include this provision.
Other copyright and related rights; performers and producers of phonograms
Right to
Article 5 Without prejudice to Articles
Australia is also subject to an identical
This will not alter Australian law. This provision
communicate to
11(1)(ii), 11
bis(1)(i) and (ii), 11
ter(1)(ii),
provision in AUSFTA Article 17.5.
is identical to the WIPO Copyright Treaty, article
the public
14(1)(ii), and 14
bis(1) of the Berne
8.
Convention, each Party shall provide to
Australia has created a right of
authors the exclusive right to authorize or
communication to the public: ss 10
prohibit the communication to the public
(definition), 31, 85-88.
of their works, by wire or wireless means,
including the making available to the public
of their works in such a way that members
of the public may access these works from
a place and at a time individually chosen by
them.
Related rights –
Article 6.1. Each Party shall accord the
Australia is also subject to an identical
This would not alter Australian law in general,
sound recording
rights provided for in this Chapter with
provision in AUSFTA Article 17.6.1.
however, care must be taken that the provision
producers and
respect to performers and producers of
does not require Australia to recognise rights for
performers:
phonograms to the performers and
American owners of copyright in sound
territorial
producers of phonograms who are
recordings where such rights are not recognised
connection and
nationals of another Party and to
in the US. At present, Australia provides
publication date.
performances or phonograms first
protection for performing/broadcasting of
published or first fixed in the territory of
sound recordings but does not accord this
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
another Party. A performance or
protection to American recordings, because the
phonogram shall be considered first
US does not itself recognise such rights:
published in the territory of a Party in
Copyright (International Protection) Regulations
which it is published within 30 days of its
1969 (Cth), regs 6 and 7, and Sch 3.
original publication.
Rights of
Article 6.2 Each Party shall provide to
Australia is also subject to an identical
This would not alter Australian law, which has
performers
performers the right to authorize or
provision in AUSFTA Article 17.6.2.
provided performers with rights against
prohibit:
unauthorised recording of their performances
(a) broadcasting and communication to the Australia has provided such rights in
since 1989. It is worth noting that the rights only
public of their unfixed performances,
the
Copyright Act 1968 Part XIA.
relate to
sound recordings of performances; in
except where the performance is
Australia, audiovisual recordings/broadcasts of
already a broadcast performance; and
performances without permission are also
(b) fixation of their unfixed performances.
prohibited, and have been since 1989.
Introduction of this right into this agreement,
however, does have one notable impact for any
country not also a party to the WPPT: it will
likely subject these rights to the Berne/TRIPS
three step test for exceptions (see TPPA Draft
Article 4.8 – a placeholder for the present but
likely to include a reference to the three step
test). In Australia, when this article came in and
Australia signed the WPPT, Australia narrowed
the exceptions to these performers’ rights,
apparently on the basis that the three step test
was more stringent than previously existing
rules under the Rome Convention.
Right of
Article 6.3
Australia is already subject to similar
This provision will not alter Australian law.
communication
(a) Each Party shall provide to performers
provisions in the AUSFTA Article
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
to the public and
and producers of phonograms the right
17.6.3, and under the WPPT Articles
Paragraph (b) is likely motivated by the US’
exceptions for
to authorize or prohibit the
10 and 14.
desire to maintain its highly idiosyncratic rules
performers and
broadcasting and any communication
relating to the broadcast/communication of
producers of
to the public of their performances or
Australia had already given producers
sound recordings, including the absence of any
phonograms
phonograms, by wire or wireless
of phonograms a right of
right of performance to the public in relation to
means, including the making available
communication to the public
sound recordings (unless the performance is via
to the public of those performances
(s 85(1)(c)). Performers were given
digital audio transmission: 17 USC §§106, 114).
and phonograms in such a way that
such a right by making them co-
The US’ limited rights for producers of sound
members of the public may access
owners of copyright in sound
recordings means that there is no remuneration
them from a place and at a time
recordings of their performances:
for broadcasts there – arguably a significant
individually chosen by them.
ss 22, 97.
subsidy from creators to the US’ broadcasters.
(b) Notwithstanding subparagraph (a) and
Article [4.8][
exceptions and limitations],
As noted above, care must be taken that the
the application of this right to analog
provision does not require Australia to
transmissions and non-interactive, free
recognise rights for American owners of
over-the-air broadcasts, and exceptions
copyright in sound recordings where such rights
or limitations to this right for such
are not recognised in the US. At present,
activity, shall be a matter of each
Australia provides protection for
Party’s law.
performing/broadcasting of sound recordings
(c) Each Party may adopt limitations to this
but does not accord this protection to American
right in respect of other noninteractive
recordings, because the US does not itself
transmissions in accordance with
recognise such rights:
Copyright (International
Article [4.8] [
exceptions and
Protection) Regulations 1969 (Cth), regs 6 and 7,
limitations], provided that the
and Sch 3.
limitations do not prejudice the right of
the performer or producer of
phonograms to obtain equitable
remuneration.
No formalities in
Article 6.4. No Party may subject the
Australia is subject to a similar
This will not change Australian law, which
relation to
enjoyment and exercise of the rights of
provision in AUSFTA Article 17.6.4 and imposes no formalities in relation to sound
19
RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
performers,
performers and producers of phonograms
under the WPPT Article 20.
recordings and performances. Care needs to be
producers of
provided for in this Chapter to any
taken with this provision, which echoes the
phonograms
formality.
prohibition on formalities in the Berne
Convention and may have unintended effects on
beneficial policies in the digital environment.
For example, attempts to address the orphan
works problem online may rely on creating
exceptions applying to works where no owner
or author is named on the work.
Definitions –
Article 6.5. For purposes of this Article and
Australia is subject to a similar
This will not change Australian law or Australia’s
performers and
Article 4, the following definitions apply
provision in AUSFTA Article 17.6.5.
international commitments.
producers of
with respect to performers and producers
The same definitions are also found in
phonograms
of phonograms:
the WPPT, Article 2.
(a)
broadcasting means the transmission to
the public by wireless means or satellite
of sounds or sounds and images, or
representations thereof, including
wireless transmission of encrypted
signals where the means for decrypting
are provided to the public by the
broadcasting organization or with its
consent; “broadcasting” does not
include transmissions over computer
networks or any transmissions where
the time and place of reception may be
individually chosen by members of the
public;
(b)
communication to the public of a
performance of a phonogram means
the transmission to the public by any
20
RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
medium, other than by broadcasting, of
sounds of a performance or the sounds
or the representations of sounds fixed
in a phonogram. For purposes of
paragraph *3+, “communication to the
public” includes making the sounds or
representations of sounds fixed in a
phonogram audible to the public;
(c)
fixation means the embodiment of
sounds, or of the representations
thereof, from which they can be
perceived, reproduced, or
communicated through a device;
(d)
performers means actors, singers,
musicians, dancers, and other persons
who act, sing, deliver, declaim, play in,
interpret, or otherwise perform literary
or artistic works or expressions of
folklore;
(e)
phonogram means the fixation of the
sounds of a performance or of other
sounds, or of a representation of
sounds, other than in the form of a
fixation incorporated in a
cinematographic or other audiovisual
work;
(f)
producer of a phonogram means the
person who, or the legal entity which,
takes the initiative and has the
responsibility for the first fixation of the
sounds of a performance or other
21
RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
sounds, or the representations of
sounds; and
(g)
publication of a performance or a
phonogram means the offering of
copies of the performance or the
phonogram to the public, with the
consent of the rightholder, and
provided that copies are offered to the
public in reasonable quantity.
Encrypted Satellite/Cable
Encrypted
Article 7.1. Each Party shall make it a
Australia is subject to a similar
These provisions will not change Australian law.
Satellite and
criminal offense to:
provision in the AUSFTA, Article 17.7.
Cable (Cable or
(a) manufacture, assemble, modify, import, It is implemented in the
Copyright Act
However, it should be noted that these kinds of
Pay Television)
export, sell, lease, or otherwise
1968 Part VAA
provisions can potentially have broad effect
distribute a tangible or intangible
beyond seeking to control ‘pirate’ decoders
device or system, knowing or having
The key difference is in part (b), which gaining access to satellite transmissions without
reason to know that the device or
adds a new wrong, namely,
permission, and may extend to attempting to
system is primarily of assistance in
distributing further without
entrench geographic and other artificial borders
decoding an encrypted program-
permission a signal that has been
in the availability of copyright material. In
carrying satellite or cable signal without originally decoded with permission
Europe, the ECJ presently has before it a case,
the authorization of the lawful
but where the further distribution is
Joined cases C-403/08 and C-429/08,
Football
distributor of such signal; and
without permission. This does not
Association Premier League Ltd v QC Leisure, in
(b) willfully receive and make use of, or
change Australian law, which already
which the issue is whether European law forbids
willfully further distribute a program-
provides for liability in these
the resale in the UK of decoders released for
carrying signal that originated as an
circumstances (see ss 135AOC,
and sold into the Greek market (in essence, the
encrypted satellite or cable signal
135AOD (civil); 135ASI, 135ASJ
Greek decoders allow for access to premier
knowing that it has been decoded
(criminal)).
league football matches, but are much cheaper
without the authorization of the lawful
than equivalent decoders sold in the UK).
distributor of the signal, or if the signal
22
RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
has been decoded with the
The additional language – distributing the
authorization of the lawful distributor
encoded signal without authorisation – would
of the signal, willfully to further
appear to create a quasi-copyright right. For a
distribute the signal for purposes of
great deal of material, copyright would seem to
commercial advantage knowing that
cover this field: if the encrypted material were a
the signal originated as an encrypted
movie, for example, the further distribution
program-carrying signal and that such
would likely be a copyright infringement.
further distribution is without the
Instead, this additional language would create a
authorization of the lawful signal
kind of quasi-copyright in material that parties
distributor.
have not seen fit to protect with copyright (eg
live sports broadcasts) (note that this is not true
7.2. Each Party shall provide for civil
for Australia, which recognises a separate form
remedies, including compensatory
of copyright in broadcasts).
damages, for any person injured by any
activity described in paragraph [1],
There does not appear to be any time limit on
including any person that holds an interest
the prohibition, unlike copyright which has a
in the encrypted programming signal or its
fixed term.
content.
Enforcement Provisions - General
Distribution of
Article 10.1 The Parties understand that a
No equivalent provision in AUSFTA.
This is stricter language on resourcing than is
enforcement
decision that a Party makes on the
found in other international agreements. It
resources
distribution of enforcement resources shall Cf ACTA Article 1.2: ‘Nothing in this
would appear to be designed to limit the ability
not excuse that Party from complying with
Agreement creates any obligation with of a Party to plead sovereign enforcement
this Chapter.
respect to the distribution of
priorities or its state of development as an
resources as between enforcement of
answer to a complaint from another country
intellectual property rights and
about the level of enforcement.
enforcement of law in general.’
This could even impact on Australia, where the
Cf TRIPS Article 41.5: ‘ It is understood Federal Police (AFP) use a
case categorisation
23
RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
that this Part does not create any
and prioritisation (CCPM) model that assigns
obligation to put in place a judicial
priorities to cases so that the AFP can ensure its
system for the enforcement of
limited resources are directed to the matters of
intellectual property rights distinct
highest priorities. Economic crimes (which
from that for the enforcement of law
would include IP) can be assessed as having very
in general, nor does it affect the
high impact, if valued at more than $5 million,
capacity of Members to enforce their
but economic crimes assessed as having a lower
law in general. Nothing in this Part
level of harm may be classed as low impact and
creates any obligation with respect to
hence not attract AFP resources.
the distribution of resources as
between enforcement of intellectual
property rights and the enforcement
of law in general.’
Presumptions
Article 10.2. In civil, administrative, and
Australia is subject to a similar
This would not change Australian law.
(copyright)
criminal proceedings involving copyright or provision in AUSFTA Article 17.11.
related rights, each Party shall provide for
It is worth noting however that presumptions
a presumption that, in the absence of
These presumptions are found in the
have become somewhat controversial in
proof to the contrary, the person whose
Copyright Act, ss 126-131 (civil
Australia of late. Recent trends in Australian
name is indicated in the usual manner as
proceedings) and ss 132A-132C
case law have emphasised the importance of
the author, producer, performer, or
(criminal proceedings).
identifying a human author in order to find that
publisher of the work, performance, or
copyright subsists (
Telstra Corp Ltd v Phone
phonogram is the designated right holder
Directories Co Pty Ltd (2010) 990 IPR 1; special
in such work, performance, or phonogram.
leave sought). The controversial question is
Each Party shall also provide for a
whether the presumptions concerning
presumption that, in the absence of proof
subsistence of copyright based on a copyright
to the contrary, the copyright or related
notice can overcome the need to identify a
right subsists in such subject matter. ...
human author. Query whether it is appropriate
to agree to provisions concerning presumptions
at a time when the meaning and impact of
presumptions is a question of very real
24
RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
controversy in copyright law.
Presumptions
Article 10.2 In civil, administrative, and
There is no equivalent provision in the This provision would require a change to
(trade mark)
criminal proceedings involving trademarks, AUSFTA or any other international
Australian law. It would also be inconsistent
each Party shall provide for a rebuttable
treaty to which Australia is a party.
with the scheme of Australian trade mark law,
presumption that a registered trademark is
which provides for a presumption of
valid.
There is no such presumption in
registrability (that is, in the case of doubt over
Australian law.
whether a trade mark should proceed to
registration, the applicant is to be given the
benefit of the doubt: s 33). If there is to be a
presumption of validity at the litigation stage, to
avoid boot-strapping, a more rigorous approach
would need to be adopted at the examination
stage.
Presumptions
Article 10.2 In civil and administrative
There is no equivalent provision in the This provision would require a change to
(patent)
proceedings involving patents, each Party
AUSFTA or any other international
Australian law and is not necessarily consistent
shall provide for a rebuttable presumption
treaty to which Australia is a party.
with current Australian policy, or with general
that a patent is valid, and shall provide that
concerns about the quality of granted patents.
each claim of a patent is presumed valid
There is no such presumption in
With patent offices suffering under significant
independently of the validity of the other
Australian law.
backlogs, it would not appear to be the right
claims.
time to make it
harder to challenge patents.
Under amendments to Australian patent law
presently before Parliament, the government
intends that examination of patents will become
more rigorous (with the commissioner of
patents only accepting a patent if satisfied on
the balance of probabilities that there is a
patentable invention, unlike the previous
standard where applicants were given the
25
RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
benefit of the doubt). In addition, patents will
become easier to challenge in pre-grant
opposition proceedings, with the office again
applying a balance of probabilities, as opposed
to the present standard where an opposition
succeeds only if the patent is ‘clearly invalid’.
Some commentators have speculated that the
increased rigour of these processes will
translate into a greater presumption of validity
to granted patents. However, there has been no
amendment to the law to that effect. The
Australian government could have, but
deliberately did not, introduce a presumption of
validity at the same time. Thus this TPPA
proposal would seem to overturn government
policy.
Publication of
Article 11.1. Each Party shall provide that
Australia is subject to a similar
This will not change the Australian approach and
judicial and
final judicial decisions and administrative
provision in AUSFTA Article 17.11.2.
is not really controversial. Australian court and
administrative
rulings of general application pertaining to
There is also a transparency provision
administrative decisions are widely available
reasons for
the enforcement of intellectual property
in the ACTA text, article 30, which
online and for free both via court websites and
decision
rights shall be in writing and shall state any requires parties to publish or make
AustLII
(www.austlii.edu.au).
relevant findings of fact and the reasoning
available to the public information
or the legal basis on which the decisions
(inter alia) on ‘final judicial decisions,
and rulings are based. Each Party shall also
and administrative rulings of general
provide that such decisions and rulings
application pertaining to the
shall be published or, where publication is
enforcement of intellectual property
not practicable, otherwise made available
rights’.
to the public, in its national language in
such a manner as to enable governments
This is TRIPS plus – TRIPS only requires
and right holders to become acquainted
that decisions on the merits
26
RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
with them.
‘preferably’ be in writing and made
available ‘at least to the parties to the
proceeding without undue delay’:
Article 41.3.
Promoting,
Article 11.2. Each Party shall promote the
The language of Article 11.2 appears
This is an interesting provision, the impact of
gathering,
collection and analysis of statistical data
to be taken directly from the ACTA
which is hard to gauge. Clearly it is one-sided:
publishing
and other relevant information concerning
text, Article 28.2 of which is in
there is no suggestion that information or best
statistics
intellectual property rights infringements
identical terms.
practices regarding IP exceptions or IP misuse.
as well as the collection of information on
While in general, collection of information
best practices to prevent and combat
Australia is under an obligation under
should be seen as a good thing, one likely
infringements.
Article 17.11.3 of AUSFTA to ‘inform
impact of such a provision is to enable ‘peer
the public of its efforts to provide
pressure’ among the Parties to match figures
Article 11.3. Each Party shall publicize
effective enforcement of intellectual
produced by other Parties. Such information
information on its efforts to provide
property rights in its civil,
also runs the risk of being de-contextualised:
effective enforcement of intellectual
administrative, and criminal system,
producing figures on enforcement efforts in IP
property rights in its civil, administrative
including any statistical information
without the context of other enforcement
and criminal systems, including statistical
that the Party may collect for such
statistics (or even GDP figures) runs the risk of
information that the Party collects for such
purpose.’
creating a misleading picture.
purposes.
Article 11.3 has some of the language
Much IP enforcement policy-making seems to
Article 11.4 Nothing in this Chapter shall
of ACTA Article 30, which states that:
proceed on the basis either of an absence of
require a Party to disclose confidential
‘To promote transparency in the
statistics as to the scale of any actual problem,
information the disclosure of which would
administration of its intellectual
or in reliance on statistics generated by self-
impede law enforcement or otherwise be
property rights enforcement system,
interested stakeholders who fail to reveal their
contrary to the public interest or would
each Party shall take appropriate
methodologies or underlying data. It would be
prejudice the legitimate commercial
measures, pursuant to its law and
helpful if policy-making were only made on the
interests of particular enterprises, public or policies, to publish or otherwise make
basis of evidence gathered through rigorous and
private.
available to the public information
transparent methods and subject to peer-
on:...
review. But there is no mention of such
(c) its efforts to ensure an effective
standards in the provision (indeed, the
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
system of enforcement and
confidentiality provision in Article 11.4 tends
protection of intellectual property
against such transparency, as commercial
rights.’
confidentiality is often cited as a reason for not
subjecting infringement reports to peer review),
nor is it clear that the government is itself to
have any hand in gathering statistics (the
reference to ‘promoting collection’ could refer
to promoting collection
by private bodies). The
provision would be improved by references to
scientific standards, transparency, and peer
review.
Enforcement Provisions - Civil
General civil
Article 12.1. Each Party shall make
TRIPS has a similar provision, although This would not change Australian law or
enforcement
available to right holders17 civil judicial
it further provides that ‘procedures
Australia’s existing international obligations.
procedures concerning the enforcement of shall be applied in such a manner as to
any intellectual property right.
avoid the creation of barriers to
legitimate trade and to provide for
FN 17: For the purposes of this Article, the
safeguards against their abuse’
term “right holder” shall include exclusive
(Article 41). AUSFTA has an identical
licensees as well as federations and
provision in Article 17.11.5. The ACTA
associations having the legal standing and
has an identical provision in Article
authority to assert such rights; the term
7.1.
“exclusive licensee” shall include the
exclusive licensee of any one or more of
Australia provides civil procedures in
the exclusive intellectual property rights
the Federal Magistrates Court and
encompassed in a given intellectual
Federal Court for IP enforcement.
property.
Civil Injunctions
Article 12.2 Each Party shall provide for
No equivalent general provision in
This provision is consistent with long-standing
injunctive relief consistent with Article 44
AUSFTA, but general obligation clearly Australian law and with Australia’s other
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT

of the TRIPS Agreement, and shall also
exists in TRIPS. AUSFTA Article
international obligations.
make injunctions available to prevent the
17.11.14 requires that judicial
exportation of infringing goods.
authorities have the power to enjoin
export of allegedly infringing goods.
The ACTA text has a more specific
provision in Article 8, which also refers
to injunctions against third parties (to
prevent infringing goods entering the
channels of commerce).
Australian IP law allows injunctions:
Copyright Act 1968 s 115(2)
Patents Act 1990 s 122(1)
Trade Marks Act 1995 s 126.
Copyright, trade mark, and patent law
all prohibit export at least in a
commercial context: The
Copyright
Act prohibits reproduction (ss31, 85-
88), and sale and distribution of
infringing copies (ss38, 103). The
Trade Marks Act specifically provides
that applying a trade mark in Australia
to goods destined for export this is
taken as ‘use of the trade mark’ (s
228). In patent law, it is infringement
to export patented products for
commercial purposes, whether the
contract pursuant to which export
takes place was made in the
jurisdiction or outside it:
Sterling Drug
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
Inc v Beck [1972] FSR 529;
United
Telephone Co v Sharples (1885) 29 Ch
D 164.
Damages
Article 12.3 Each Party shall provide that:
Australian IP law provides for damages This provision is consistent with Australian law,
(general)
(a) in civil judicial proceedings, its judicial
and accounts of profits:
which provides for both compensatory damages
authorities shall have the authority to
Copyright Act 1968 s 115
and an account of profits under all regimes. An
order the infringer to pay the right holder:
Patents Act 1990 s 122
account of profits is TRIPS-plus but not AUSFTA-
(i) damages adequate to compensate for
Trade Marks Act 1995 s 126
plus (as it relates to copyright infringement and
the injury the right holder has suffered
trade mark counterfeiting).
as a result of the infringement,18 and
AUSFTA includes an identical provision
(ii) at least in the case of copyright or
Article 17.11.6(a),
except footnote 18,
Australian copyright and patent law states that
related rights infringement and
requiring a reasonable royalty
the court may decline to order damages in the
trademark counterfeiting, the profits of standard in patent, is new.
case of innocent infringement (
Copyright Act
the infringer that are attributable to the
s 115(3);
Patents Act s 123). This exception is
infringement and that are not taken
not mentioned in Article 12.3, but would be
into account in computing the amount
accommodated by the fact that judicial
of the damages referred to in clause (i).
authorities need only have the
authority to
make damages awards, not that they
must make
FN18 In the case of patent infringement,
such an award.
damages adequate to compensate for the
infringement shall not be less than a
Prescribing some kind of minimum patent
reasonable royalty.
damages would seem to be controversial, and
might require a change to Australian law.
Calculation of
Article 12.3 Each Party shall provide that:
Australian legislation does not specify
It is possible that this would require a change to
damages and
...
matters to be considered in assessing
Australian law. At present, Australian courts can
retail price
(b) in determining damages for
damages. Courts clearly have the
in their discretion accept or reject evidence
infringement of intellectual property
authority to consider any legitimate
depending on how convincing and relevant they
rights, its judicial authorities shall
measure of value.
find it (
Evidence Act 1995 s 136). The draft
consider,
inter alia, the value of the
provision would seem to
require the court to
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
infringed good or service, measured by
consider the retail price of a good if tendered by
the suggested retail price or other
the right holder, regardless of whether that is a
legitimate measure of value submitted
legitimate, relevant, or convincing measure.
by the right holder.
This draft provision is TRIPS plus, AUSFTA plus,
and ACTA plus. It matches an early draft of ACTA
which was rejected during the negotiations. The
final ACTA text requires that judicial authorities
have the authority to consider ‘any
legitimate measure of value the right holder submits,
which
may include lost profits, the value of the
infringed goods or services measured by the
market price, or the suggested retail price’. That
language allows the court to reject retail price
as illegitimate in a given case.
This provision would only be appropriate if (a)
in
every single IP infringement case, it was
appropriate to consider the
retail price of the
product, and (b) courts were refusing to hear
such evidence. I am unaware of any evidence of
the latter, and the former is demonstrably not
true. Sometimes, particularly in cases where IP
rights cover some component of a product, a
royalty is clearly more appropriate. The
extension of a
requirement to consider such
measures would be particularly inappropriate in
patent. In the US, reforms have been proposed
to require apportionment of damages. More
recent proposals would require the
court to
‘identify the methodologies and factors that are
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
relevant to the determination of damages’, and
would allow the court or jury to ‘consider only
those methodologies and factors relevant to
making such determination’, with only evidence
relevant to such methodologies being
admissible (See 111th Congress, 1st Sess, S.515,
sec.4 (page 28)).
Statutory
Article 12.4. In civil judicial proceedings,
Australia does not have a statutory
Statutory damages should be opposed. They
(pre-established)
each Party shall, at least with respect to
damages system. Australia allows for
have well-known and serious problems. They
damages
works, phonograms, and performances
the imposition of additional (ie
can lead to excessively high awards based on
protected by copyright or related rights,
punitive) damages for flagrant
the US experience where awards of statutory
and in cases of trademark counterfeiting,
infringement in copyright (
Copyright
damages are frequently arbitrary, inconsistent,
establish or maintain a system that
Act s 115) and patent (
Patents Act
unprincipled, and sometimes grossly excessive.
provides for pre-established damages,
s.122(1A)) and soon trade mark
Awards of this kind operate punitively, but the
which shall be available upon the election
(Intellectual Property Laws
money goes to the copyright owner, not the
of the right holder. Pre-established
Amendment (Raising the Bar) Bill
state, leading to private windfalls and
damages shall be in an amount sufficiently
2011, Schedule 5, Part 3, clause 29
encouraging litigation. They can operate ‘
in
high to constitute a deterrent to future
(proposed s 126(2)).
terrorem’: that is, they are used with
infringements and to compensate fully the
considerable success to strike terror into the
right holder for the harm caused by the
This draft text is TRIPS plus, AUSFTA
heart of anyone with the temerity to make
infringement.
plus and ACTA plus.
unauthorized uses” of copyright. There is also a
query whether the current drafting would allow
In both ACTA and the AUSFTA, pre-
a country to adopt differentiated statutory
established damages are one option,
damages (eg, different levels for personal vs
but Australia is entitled to retain its
commercial kinds of infringement). US
system of additional damages.
precedent (they have differentiated awards)
suggests yes, but were this not the case the text
should be amended.
In any event, Australia needs as much flexibility
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
as it can get to make adjustments to its present
policy, with which there are a number of
problems. Additional damages awards in
Australia are out of line with other countries. In
some cases, additional damages awards exceed
ten times the proven harm or loss, reaching very
substantial six-figure sums; even exceeding,
arguably, the fines that would be imposed by a
criminal court – but without the protections of
criminal procedure, like the burden of proof.
The issue of the appropriate measure of
damages, particularly additional damages, is
likely to come up more urgently in the future:
most likely when some poor individual gets sued
for downloading.
Treble damages
Article 12.4 In civil judicial proceedings
Australia does not have treble
The threat of treble damages has the potential
for wilful patent
concerning patent infringement, each Party damages for patent infringement.
to significantly increase the risk of litigation. In a
infringement
shall provide that its judicial authorities
Australian law does provide for
context where there are concerns about the
shall have the authority to increase
additional (punitive) damages (
Patents quality of granted patents, and where patent
damages to an amount that is up to three
Act s 122(1A)), the assessment of
litigation is extremely expensive, treble
times the amount of the injury found or
which is a matter for the court.
damages are another factor which may give an
assessed.19
accused infringer the incentive to settle or pay a
royalty even in relation to a patent of doubtful
FN19 No Party shall be required to apply
validity. On one view, Australia has only
this paragraph to actions for infringement
relatively recently introduced additional
against a Party or a third party acting with
damages into patent law, and the impact of this
the authorization or consent of a Party.
change should be assessed before adding new,
more specific rules. On the other hand,
Australian approaches to additional damages
tend to allow courts to make at-large
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
assessments which, at least in copyright cases,
have exceeded 10 times the proven damage.
The language of this provision, in
limiting the
award of punitive damages to no more than
three times the damage proved, might place an
(appropriate) cap on damages awards.
Attorneys
Article 12.5. Each Party shall provide that
Australian courts generally have the
This provision on costs is TRIPS-plus (Art 45
Fees/Costs
its judicial authorities, except in
discretion to order an unsuccessful
refers to ‘expenses which
may include
awards
exceptional circumstances, have the
party pay costs, subject to rules
reasonable attorneys fees) and AUSFTA-plus,
authority to order, at the conclusion of civil relating to the rejection of reasonable
and uncontroversial for Australia. Courts would
judicial proceedings concerning copyright
settlement offers.
retain their usual discretion (for example, costs
or related rights infringement, trademark
may not be recoverable if a reasonable
infringement, or patent infringement, that
settlement offer was refused) (the provision
the prevailing party shall be awarded
only requires that the judicial authorities have
payment by the losing party of court costs
the authority to make an award, not that they
or fees and, at least in proceedings
shall make such an award).
concerning copyright or related rights
infringement or willful trademark
There should be an equivalent to Article 48 of
counterfeiting, reasonable attorney’s fees.
TRIPS, which provides for indemnification of the
Further, each Party shall provide that its
defendant in cases where a party has been
judicial authorities, at least in exceptional
wrongfully enjoined or restrained.
circumstances, shall have the authority to
order, at the conclusion of civil judicial
The provision seems unnecessarily complicated.
proceedings concerning patent
infringement, that the prevailing party shall
be awarded payment by the losing party of
reasonable attorneys’ fees.
Seizure of
Article 12.6. In civil judicial proceedings
Australia is subject to an identical
The consistency of this provision with Australian
infringing goods,
concerning copyright or related rights
provision in AUSFTA Article 17.11.9
law depends on whether the provision extends
34
RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
materials,
infringement and trademark
and 17.11.10. See also ACTA Article 10 to goods in the hands of innocent third
implements, and
counterfeiting, each Party shall provide
(seizure and destruction of infringing
parties/persons other than the infringer. If it
documentary
that its judicial authorities shall have the
goods, and implements).
does, the provision would be arguably
evidence
authority to order the seizure of allegedly
inconsistent with Australian trade mark law, but
infringing goods, materials and implements In copyright law, see s 116 (rights of
consistent with Australian copyright law.
relevant to the infringement, and, at least
owner in respect of infringing copies);
for trademark counterfeiting, documentary
Even when confined to goods taken from the
evidence relevant to the infringement.
In trade mark law, the position
infringer, the provision may not be consistent
depends on case law; see analysis
with trade mark or patent law. Australian courts
12.7. Each Party shall provide that in civil
(next box).
have power, in order to perfect an injunction
judicial proceedings:
restraining trade mark infringement, to order
(a) at the right holder’s request, goods that
delivery up of infringing items (goods, labels,
have been found to be pirated or
packaging, advertising material) for either the
counterfeit shall be destroyed, except in
obliteration of the trade mark or for
exceptional circumstances;
destruction. But the remedy is there to ensure
(b) its judicial authorities shall have the
the defendant is not tempted to put the
authority to order that materials and
infringing copies into circulation. As the
implements that have been used in the
infringement arises from the use of the trade
manufacture or creation of such pirated
mark in relation to goods or services, rather
or counterfeit goods be, without
than the sale or provision of the goods or
compensation of any sort, promptly
services themselves, obliteration of the mark is
destroyed or, in exceptional
in fact to be preferred over destruction: Lahore
circumstances, without compensation of
and Dufty,
Patents, Trade Marks & Related
any sort, disposed of outside the
Rights (looseleaf, 1996-), [58,500]; see
Warwick
channels of commerce in such a manner
Tyre v New Motor and General Rubber (1910) 27
as to minimize the risks of further
RPC 161, 171; Bently and Sherman,
Intellectual
infringements; and
Property Law (2nd ed 2001), 1100.
(c) in regard to counterfeit trademarked
goods, the simple removal of the
trademark unlawfully affixed shall not be
sufficient to permit the release of goods
35
RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT

into the channels of commerce.
Ordering the
Article 12.8 Each Party shall provide that
Australian law has procedures for
All of the procedures available in Australian law
infringer to
in civil judicial proceedings concerning the
obtaining information, but they are all are limited and subject to general principles
provide
enforcement of intellectual property rights, more qualified than this provision:
proscribing misuse of court procedures.
information
its judicial authorities shall have the
Discovery is available against a
Preliminary discovery orders, for example, are
authority to order the infringer to provide
party (eg
Federal Court Rules,
only allowed if the party seeking disclosure has
any information that the infringer
Order 15, Rule 1): but limited to
exhausted discovery against the other parties;
possesses or controls regarding any
matters relevant to the case;
the power to make such orders is exercised with
persons or entities involved in any aspect
Preliminary discovery from a non-
caution:
McIlwain v Ramsey Food Packaging Pty
of the infringement and regarding the
party (
Federal Court Rules, Order
Ltd (2005) 221 ALR 785. Subpoenas cannot be
means of production or distribution
15A) can be used to seek
too widely drafted, or put the recipient to
channel of such goods or services,
information from any person to
disproportionate effort or expense, or require
including the identification of third persons
identify a prospective respondent
the exercise of judgment on the part of the
involved in the production and distribution
(
Federal Court Rules, Order 15A,
recipient. A subpoena requiring ‘the production
of the infringing goods or services or in
Rule 3) (for example, to identify
of all documents relating to the applicant's
their channels of distribution, and to
the manufacturer of infringing
allegation of infringement by another would
provide this information to the right
goods found in the hands of a
probably be oppressive.
holder.
wholesaler or retailer); against a
prospective respondent in order
In short: ensuring a broad power to extract any
to determine whether there is a
relevant information from an infringer might
sufficient case against them, or
require specific adjustments to the Federal
against a third party where ‘it
Court rules. Specific, IP-only adjustments to
appears that the person has or is
rules of this kind are undesirable: they fragment
likely to have or has had or is likely and complicate court procedural rules: see
to have had in the person's
William Cornish, Josef Drexl, Reto Hilty, Annette
possession any document which
Kur, “Procedures and Remedies for Enforcing
relates to any question in the
IPRS: The European Commission’s Proposed
proceeding’ (
Federal Court Rules,
Directive” [2003] 25 EIPR 447, 448.
Order 15A, Rule 8).
Subpoenas are also available
This draft resembles an earlier draft of ACTA.
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT

against third parties requiring
The finalised ACTA provision (Article 11) is
production of specific evidence.
heavily qualified:
It is expressly subject to the law of privilege,
confidentiality, and privacy;
It requires a ‘justified request of the right
holder’
It is qualified to providing information ‘at
least for the purpose of collecting evidence’
It is limited to ‘relevant information as
provided for in *the party’s+ applicable laws
and regulations’.
These qualifications should clearly be included
in any TPPA text. The equivalent provision in
AUSFTA (Article 17.11.11) is differently worded
from the TPPA draft. Notably, FN31 of the
AUSFTA specifically provides that the provision
‘does not apply to the extent that it would
conflict with common law or statutory
privileges, such as legal professional privilege’.
Contempt and
Article 12.9 Each Party shall provide that
Australia is subject to an identical
No change to Australian law.
confidential
its judicial authorities have the authority
provision in the AUSFTA Article
information
to:
17.11.12. This is consistent with
(a) fine or imprison, in appropriate cases, a
Australian law.
party to a civil judicial proceeding who fails
to abide by valid orders issued by such
authorities; and
(b) impose sanctions on parties to a civil
judicial proceeding their counsel, experts,
or other persons subject to the court’s
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT

jurisdiction, for violation of judicial orders
regarding the protection of confidential
information produced or exchanged in a
proceeding.
Administrative
Article 12.10. To the extent that any civil
Australian law provides for judicial
No change or impact on Australian law.
procedures
remedy can be ordered as a result of
procedures in infringement cases, thus
administrative procedures on the merits of
this provision is not applicable at least
a case, each Party shall provide that such
at present.
procedures conform to principles
equivalent in substance to those set out in
this Chapter.
Experts and the
Article 12.11. In the event that a Party’s
Australia is subject to an identically
No change or impact on Australian law.
cost of experts
judicial or other authorities appoint
worded provision in AUSFTA Article
technical or other experts in civil
17.11.15. Australian courts have, but
proceedings concerning the enforcement
rarely exercise, the power to appoint
of intellectual property rights and require
experts. Australian proceedings are
that the parties to the litigation bear the
generally adversarial with the parties
costs of such experts, that Party should
briefing and presenting their own
seek to ensure that such costs are closely
experts.
related,
inter alia, to the quantity and
nature of work to be performed and do not
unreasonably deter recourse to such
proceedings.
Civil remedies in
Article 12.12. In civil judicial proceedings
Australian law already provides for:
As noted above, statutory or pre-established
anti-
concerning the acts described in Article
Provisional measures, and
damages should be opposed. They have well-
circumvention
4.[9] (TPMs) and Article 4.[10] (RMI), each
payment of costs by the losing
known and serious problems. They can lead to
and RMI cases
Party shall provide that its judicial
party, under the general/inherent
excessively high awards based on the US
authorities shall, at the least, have the
powers of the court
experience where awards of statutory damages
authority to:
Damages or account of profits for
are frequently arbitrary, inconsistent,
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT

(a) impose provisional measures, including
breach of the anti-circumvention
unprincipled, and sometimes grossly excessive.
seizure of devices and products
and RMI provisions, including
Awards of this kind operate punitively, but the
suspected of being involved in the
additional damages aimed at
money goes to the copyright owner, not the
prohibited activity;
deterring flagrant conduct:
state, leading to private windfalls and
(b) provide an opportunity for the right
ss 116AQ, 116D;
encouraging litigation. They can operate ‘
in
holder to elect between actual
The destruction of devices and
terrorem’: that is, they are used with
damages it suffered (plus any profits
products involved: s 116.
considerable success to strike terror into the
attributable to the prohibited activity
heart of anyone with the temerity to make
not taken into account in computing
Australia does
not provide for pre-
unauthorized uses” of copyright.
those damages) or pre-established
established damages for breaches of
damages;
the anti-circumvention or RMI
(c) order payment to the prevailing right
provisions.
holder at the conclusion of civil judicial
proceedings of court costs and fees,
and reasonable attorney’s fees, by the
party engaged in the prohibited
conduct; and
(d) order the destruction of devices and
products found to be involved in the
prohibited activity.
No Party shall make damages available
under this paragraph against a nonprofit
library, archives, educational institution, or
public noncommercial broadcasting entity
that sustains the burden of proving that
such entity was not aware and had no
reason to believe that its acts constituted a
prohibited activity.
Provisional
Article 13
Australian law does allow for
This provision is consistent with Australian law.
measures
13.1. Each Party shall act on requests for
provisional measures such as seizure
However, as drafted here, the TPPA provision
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
provisional relief
inaudita altera parte
of evidence
inaudita altera parte.
has insufficient protection for defendants and
expeditiously, and shall, except in
However, the availability of such
third parties. The absence of such protections
exceptional cases, generally execute such
measures is heavily circumscribed: an
reinforces the view that it is only right holders
requests within ten days.
applicant must show that (a) they
that are being considered. This is not desirable
have a strong prima facie case; (b) the
from any perspective. Presumably Australian
13.2. Each Party shall provide that its
potential or actual loss or damage to
courts would continue to apply their usual
judicial authorities have the authority to
the applicant will be serious if the
protections for the interests of defendants. It is
require the applicant, with respect to
order is not made; and (c) there is
undesirable, however, to have an unqualified
provisional measures, to provide any
sufficient evidence that (i) the
provision, which could be used to subject
reasonably available evidence in order to
respondent possesses important
Australians to unregulated search and seizure
satisfy themselves with a sufficient degree
evidentiary material; and (ii) there is a
powers in other countries.
of certainty that the applicant’s right is
real possibility that th
e respondent
being infringed or that such infringement is might destroy such material or cause
TRIPS ensures some protections would apply,
imminent, and to order the applicant to
it to be unavailable for use in evidence because it contains certain mandatory
provide a reasonable security or equivalent in a proceeding or anticipated
requirements to protect defendants and parties
assurance set at a level sufficient to protect proceeding before the Court:
Federal
subject to provisional orders:
the defendant and to prevent abuse, and
Court Rules, Order 25B. In addition
1. Parties affected must be given notice,
so as not to unreasonably deter recourse
Australian courts have developed
without delay after the execution of the
to such procedures.
further, important protections for
measures at the latest (Art 50.4);
persons the subject of such an order:
2. A review, including a right to be heard,
requirements for the presence of an
must take place upon the defendant’s
independent legal practitioner; that
request with a view to deciding, within a
the party engaged in the search be
reasonable period after the notification
small; that neither the right holder nor
of the measures, whether these
their employees be given access to the
measures shall be modified, revoked or
material directly; that the order not be
confirmed (Art 50.4); and
carried out at the same time as a
3. The measures must be revoked on the
police search.
defendant’s request if proceedings on
the merits are not initiated within a
It is notable that AUSFTA Article
reasonable period (not to exceed the
17.11.16 specifically provides that
longer of 20 working days or 31
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
parties’ authorities shall act on
calendar days) (Art 50.6).
request for relief expeditiously
in
accordance with the Party’s judicial
rules – thus explicitly preserving local
rules and protections.
Border measures
Border measures
Article 14.1. Each Party shall provide that
Australia is subject to an identical
This would not change Australian law.
- preconditions
any right holder initiating procedures for
provision in AUSFTA Article 17.11.19.
its competent authorities to suspend
A 12 month period for notices of
release of suspected counterfeit or
objection to remain ‘live’ is not
confusingly similar trademark goods, or
controversial (in fact, in Australia the
pirated copyright goods20 into free
period is 4 years).
circulation is required to provide adequate
evidence to satisfy the competent
authorities that, under the laws of the
country of importation, there is
prima facie
an infringement of the right holder's
intellectual property right and to supply
sufficient information that may reasonably
be expected to be within the right holder’s
knowledge to make the suspected goods
reasonably recognizable by its competent
authorities. The requirement to provide
sufficient information shall not
unreasonably deter recourse to these
procedures. Each Party shall provide that
the application to suspend the release of
goods apply to all points of entry to its
territory and remain in force for a period of
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
not less than one year from the date of
application, or the period that the good is
protected by copyright or the relevant
trademark registration is valid, whichever
is shorter.
Border measures
Article 14.2. Each Party shall provide that
Australia is subject to an identical
No change or impact on Australian law.
- security
its competent authorities shall have the
provision in AUSFTA Article 17.11.20.
authority to require a right holder initiating This would not change Australian law.
procedures to suspend the release of
suspected counterfeit or confusingly
similar trademark goods, or pirated
copyright goods, to provide a reasonable
security or equivalent assurance sufficient
to protect the defendant and the
competent authorities and to prevent
abuse. Each Party shall provide that such
security or equivalent assurance shall not
unreasonably deter recourse to these
procedures. A Party may provide that such
security may be in the form of a bond
conditioned to hold the importer or owner
of the imported merchandise harmless
from any loss or damage resulting from any
suspension of the release of goods in the
event the competent authorities
determine that the article is not an
infringing good.
Border measures
Article 14.3. Where its competent
The AUSFTA provision (Article
Australia has presently before Parliament
– information to
authorities have seized goods that are
17.11.21) allows for the provision of
proposals to expand the kinds of information to
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
be released to
counterfeit or pirated, a Party shall provide similar information, but only where
be made available to right holders on seizure of
the right holder
that its competent authorities have the
the competent authorities “have
goods. To some extent, this provision would
authority to inform the right holder within
made a determination that goods are
seem to pre-empt any Parliamentary discussion
30 days21 of the seizure of the names and
counterfeit or pirated”. The TPPA draft of those proposals.
addresses of the consignor, exporter,
contemplates release of this
consignee, or importer, a description of the information
on seizure. Australian law
There are good reasons to be concerned about
merchandise, quantity of the merchandise, actually does provide for release of
the too-ready release of information by customs
and, if known, the country of origin of the
information about the
importer on
(as opposed to release of information in the
merchandise.
seizure (
Copyright Act s 135AC;
Trade
context of court proceedings). There are
Marks Act s 134) and identifying the
interests of privacy and confidentiality. At the
goods seized. Proposed amendments
point where goods are seized (but no
in the Intellectual Property Laws
determination of infringement has been made),
Amendment (Raising the Bar) Bill 2011 the importer may be innocent and yet have
will give Customs the power to release commercial-in-confidence information (about
information about the exporter
goods, quantities etc) made available to a
(schedule 5).
competitor.
The ACTA provision (Article 22) is even These provisions are
not just used against ‘evil
more detailed.
counterfeiters and pirates’, but may be used by
competitors in the context of a legitimate
dispute over a trade mark. In that context, the
too-ready release of information would seem to
be entirely inappropriate.
Border measures
Article 14.4. Each Party shall provide that
Australian officials have
ex officio
This would change Australian law, which does
– ex officio
its competent authorities may initiate
power to make seizures on import,
not provide for seizure of goods on export or in-
powers and
border measures
ex officio22 with respect
but not export and not in-transit.
transit.
scope (import,
to imported, exported, or in-transit
export, in-transit) merchandise,23 or merchandise in free
The concept of having seizures in-transit was
trade zones, that is suspected of being
highly controversial in the ACTA negotiations.
counterfeit or confusingly similar
Seizure of in-transit goods may involve the
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
trademark goods, or pirated copyright
imposition of IP-related procedures on goods
goods.
that are non-infringing in both the source and
destination countries – a contravention of the
territorial nature of IP. The question of what
kinds of in transit goods may be seized has been
the subject of a great deal of litigation and
inconsistent European Court of Justice decisions
in Europe, where such rules have been in place
since 2003. Further, ‘in transit’ seizures are
presently the subject of a WTO dispute between
India/Brazil and the European Union. It would
be entirely inappropriate to expand IP law in
this way at this time – when their scope is so
uncertain and problematic in Europe and the
subject of international dispute.
The final text of ACTA made having provisions
regarding in transit goods
optional, not
compulsory.
Border measures:
Article 14.5 Each Party shall adopt or
This provision is quite differently
It is not clear that this provision is in the
determination of
maintain a procedure by which its
worded from TRIPS, which envisages
interests of Australians who are engaged in
infringement
competent authorities shall determine,
the right holder commencing
international trade. This provision could allow a
within a reasonable period of time after
proceedings leading to a decision on
country to give to individual customs officers
the initiation of the procedures described
the merits, or AUSFTA (which does not the power to make determinations about
under Article 14.1 whether the suspect
contain a direct equivalent). It is
whether goods are infringing. This would create
goods infringe an intellectual property
consistent with Australian law,
risks of inappropriate seizure of goods. It is not
right. Where a Party provides
provided that:
difficult to imagine local customs being quite
administrative procedures for the
1. Competent authorities includes
ready to intercept imported goods at the behest
determination of an infringement, it shall
courts; and
of a local IP owner (or a local person asserting
also provide its authorities with the
2. The provision does not require
they own IP). The potential for corruption is
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
authority to impose administrative
those authorities to take the
significant. It would be better to have such
penalties following a determination that
initiative to determine whether
matters handled by the courts where more
the goods are infringing.
the goods are infringing. TRIPS
transparency can be expected.
Art 55 and Australian law put the
onus on the right holder to
initiate proceedings; otherwise
the seized goods are released.
(
Trade Marks Act 1995 s 136;
Copyright Act s135AF).
Border measures
Article 14.6. Each Party shall provide that
A very similar provision exists in
Australian law in this area is about to become
– destruction of
goods that have been determined by its
AUSFTA Article 17.11.23.
more stringent, as a result of the Intellectual
goods
competent authorities to be pirated or
Property Laws Amendment (Raising the Bar) Bill,
counterfeit shall be destroyed, except in
Where infringement proceedings are
Schedule 5. Under the proposed amendments, a
exceptional circumstances. In regard to
commenced, Australian courts have
person whose goods are seized pursuant to a
counterfeit trademark goods, the simple
the authority to order destruction of
notice of objection will have to make a
claim
removal of the trademark unlawfully
infringing goods:
Copyright Act s 116;
within a defined period for the goods. In the
affixed shall not be sufficient to permit the
in trade mark law this is a matter of
absence of any such claim being made, the
release of the goods into the channels of
the court’s inherent jurisdiction
goods will be automatically forfeit. The idea is
commerce. In no event shall the
(discussed above). This would be
that an importer will only be able to reclaim the
competent authorities be authorized,
sufficient for compliance with Article
seized copies by providing the objector with
except in exceptional circumstances, to
14.6 as drafted.
information necessary to identify and contact
permit the exportation of counterfeit or
them. This ensures that importers are not able
pirated goods or to permit such goods to
Under present Australian law, unless
to reclaim the copies without giving the objector
be subject to other customs procedures.
the objector brings infringement
information that will assist the objector to test
proceedings, the goods are returned
the matter in court.
to the importer. The only exception is
where the goods are forfeited
Arguably the new Australian system goes even
voluntarily to the Commonwealth, and beyond this TPPA draft, in that it will allow for
‘disposed of as the Customs CEO
seizure and destruction of goods not
directs’ (
Trade Marks Act 1995 (Cth) s
determined by any competent authority to be
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
139;
Copyright Act 1968 (Cth) ss
infringing. There are provisions in the new laws
135AE; 135AI) (which could mean
so that if goods are later determined to be non-
destruction).
infringing, the importer may seek compensation
from the Commonwealth.
Border measures
Article 14.7. Where an application fee,
Australia is subject to a very similar
– fees
merchandise storage fee, or destruction
provision in AUSFTA Article 17.11.24. ;
fee is assessed in connection with border
In any event it is unlikely to be readily
measures to enforce an intellectual
justiciable except perhaps in extreme
property right, each Party shall provide
cases. ACTA includes a similar
that such fee shall not be set at an amount
provision: Article 21.
that unreasonably deters recourse to these
measures.
Border measures
Article 14.8 A Party may exclude from the
There is a similar provision in ACTA.
A
de minimis exception is consistent with TRIPS
– personal
application of this Article (border
There is no similar provision in the
(Article 60) and not dealt with by AUSFTA. Such
luggage
measures), small quantities of goods of a
AUSFTA.
an exception is critical to include – it does, after
non-commercial nature contained in
all, constitute the mechanism for ensuring
traveler’s personal luggage.
countries not required to introduce ‘border iPod
or bag searches’. However, it should also allow,
as in TRIPS, goods ‘sent in small consignments’ .
Australians should also be perhaps concerned
about the voluntary nature of the
de minimis
exception. A representative of the Australian
Attorney-General’s Department has in the past
indicated that the government was ‘considering’
how to address the ‘problem’ that Australians
were returning from holidays carrying DVDs of
latest releases. According to Fiona Phillips, in a
paper given to WIPO, ‘[t]he Australian
Government has received a number of
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
representations from DVD rental businesses
stating that their businesses are suffering
because people returning to Australia are
importing infringing copies of the latest
releases... We are currently considering options
for addressing these issues. Our obligations
under TRIPs in relation to border measures and
the fact these goods are being imported for
personal use make finding a policy solution
challenging’. This was, however, in 2006.
Enforcement Provisions - Criminal
Criminal
Article 15.1 Each Party shall provide for
Australia is subject to an almost
This provision is TRIPS-plus (TRIPS does not
enforcement:
criminal procedures and penalties to be
identical provision in AUSFTA Article
define the meaning of ‘commercial scale’).
defining
applied at least in cases of willful
17.11.26, although footnote 24 has no Under Article 61 of TRIPS, ‘commercial scale’
infringement on
trademark counterfeiting or copyright or
equivalent in AUSFTA.
means ‘counterfeiting or piracy carried on at the
a commercial
related rights piracy on a commercial scale.
magnitude or extent of typical or usual
scale
Willful copyright or related rights piracy on
Footnote 24 is contrary to Australian
commercial activity with respect to a given
a commercial scale includes:
law, which specifically defines ‘profit’
product in a given market’ (WTO Dispute
(a) significant willful copyright or related
in the criminal provisions to
exclude
Settlement Body,
China – Measures Affecting
rights infringements that have no direct any advantage, benefit, or gain that is
the Protection and Enforcement of Intellectual
or indirect motivation of financial gain;
received by a person and results from,
Property Rights: Report of the Panel (2009),
and
or is associated with, the person’s
page 115). Adopting this definition more
(b) willful infringements for purposes of
private or domestic use of any
generally creates two different meanings for the
commercial advantage or private
copyright material (s 132AA).
concept of commercial scale operating at an
financial gain.24
Footnote 24 would seem to ride
international level, and it is this proposed TPPA
Each Party shall treat willful importation or roughshod over that limitation, and
one which is contrary to common sense or
exportation of counterfeit or pirated goods suggest if you copy one of your CDs,
common understanding. It makes personal and
as unlawful activities subject to criminal
and I copy one of my CDs, so we can
private acts criminal, contrary to long-standing
penalties.25
swap them – that’s a criminal act.
practice of confining criminal remedies to
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
Footnote 24 should be opposed.
commercial activities.
FN24: For greater certainty, “financial
gain” for purposes of this Article includes
There are a number of reasons to oppose the
the receipt or expectation of anything of
provision. Notably, since Australia amended its
value.
law to comply with AUSFTA, we have not seen
FN25: A Party may comply with this
any kind of diminishing in pressure to increase
obligation in relation to exportation of
enforcement and the strength of IP laws, nor
pirated goods through its measures
any surge in prosecutions. This suggests that the
concerning distribution.
change will have little practical impact to assist
copyright or trade mark owners – although it
may operate to chill innovations and activities
through fear of criminal prosecution.
Further, the redefinition of ‘commercial scale’ to
include all infringements for private gain has
nothing to do with the kinds of counterfeiting
that are said to be problematic by organisations
like the OECD. To counter large-scale
counterfeiting or piracy, it is not necessary to
criminalise single acts of infringement,
especially single acts for private ‘financial gain’.
Such individual acts are unlikely to be the
subject of transborder enforcement or even
local enforcement by international IP owners.
Further, language of this kind was rejected
during the ACTA negotiations. In the final ACTA
text, commercial scale is only further defined to
include ‘at least’ those acts ‘carried out as
commercial activities for direct or indirect
economic or commercial advantage’.
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
Criminal
Article 15.2 Each Party shall also provide
Australia has general provisions on
While this will not change Australian law, it is an
enforcement –
for criminal procedures and penalties to be trafficking of labels in s 147 of the
expansion of Australia’s international
trafficking in
applied, even absent willful trademark
Trade Marks Act. Liability requires that obligations.
labels
counterfeiting or copyright or related
the person make a ‘die, block,
rights piracy, at least in cases of knowing
machine or instrument ... knowing
The problem with this expansion is likely to be in
trafficking in:
that it is likely to be used for, or in the
the multiplication of offences that a person
(a) labels or packaging, of any type or
course of, committing [a trade mark
commits in the act of infringement. Multiplying
nature, to which a counterfeit
offence+’. Under proposed
the wrongful acts has the potential to lead to
trademark26 has been applied, the use
amendments in the Intellectual
over-charging of defendants in the criminal
of which is likely to cause confusion, to
Property Laws Amendment (Raising
context.
cause mistake, or to deceive; and
the Bar) Bill 2011, liability will also
(b) counterfeit or illicit labels27 affixed to,
arise (as a summary offence) where
This TPPA draft provision is
broader than
enclosing, or accompanying, or
the person is negligent as this possible AUSFTA – AUSFTA contains an equivalent to
designed to be affixed to, enclose, or
use.
Article 15.2(b), but not (a). Thus the TPPA
accompany the following:
language has become broader than the past US
(i) a phonogram,
Thus Australian law is not confined to
model, and now applies to any packaging for
(ii) a copy of a computer program or a
certain goods.
any goods.
literary work,
(iii) a copy of a motion picture or other
The TPPA draft is
also broader than ACTA. ACTA
audiovisual work,
Article 23 does apply to packaging for any
(iv) documentation or packaging for
goods, BUT is limited in two critical ways:
such items; and
1. It only applies where the mark is
(c) counterfeit documentation or packaging
identical, and the packaging is intended
for items of the type described in
to be used in the course of trade on
subparagraph (b).
goods/services identical to the
goods/services for which the trade mark
is registered. The TPPA draft applies
wherever the packaging is ‘likely to
cause confusion’. This would extend
beyond counterfeit labelling to labelling
and packaging for use in ordinary trade
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
mark infringement.
2. The ACTA provision only applies to
importation or use ‘in the course of
trade and on a commercial scale’.
Neither restriction is found in the TPPA
draft.
Criminal
Article 15.3 Each Party shall also provide
No equivalent provision is found in
This should be opposed. It would require
enforcement:
for criminal procedures and penalties to be AUSFTA. This might require a change
changes to Australian law: specifically, the
camcording
applied against any person who, without
to Australian law, because while
introduction of an offence covering the making
authorization of the holder of copyright or
owners of copyright are not without
of the copy of the film, without intention to
related rights in a motion picture or other
remedies in these kinds of case, there
distribute (ie the simple making of the copy).
audiovisual work, knowingly uses or
would be additional matters requiring
The proposed offence would cover acts done for
attempts to use an audiovisual recording
proof. Under Australian law:
purely personal or domestic purposes.
device to transmit or make a copy of a
1. Filming a movie is (civil) copyright
motion picture or other audiovisual work,
infringement (s101);
ACTA has a camcording provision (Article 23.3)
or any part thereof, from a performance of
2. A copyright owner can seek
but it is watered down (it refers to ‘appropriate
such work in a public motion picture
delivery up of infringing copies &
cases’) and is optional (a party
may provide...).
exhibition facility.
equipment in a civil case (s116);
3. If a person uploads the film online, At present, Australia’s criminal copyright
they can be:
provisions are not, by any stretch of the
a. liable for communicating the
imagination, balanced or reasonable. Strictly
film to the public (s101);
speaking, there are many Australian citizens,
b. criminally liable for engaging
including, no doubt, highly respectable
in conduct that results in
professionals and well-regarded members of the
copyright infringement having community, who are criminals under these
a substantial prejudicial
provisions, specifically s132AL, because many of
impact on the owner of
us possess devices (computers) that we intend
copyright and on a
will be used to infringe copyright (by
commercial scale (s 132AC);
downloading something or printing a copy when
c. criminally liable for
the terms of use of the website say you can’t).
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
distributing articles (including
But they are purely Australian provisions and
electronic files) to an extent
could be amended: it would be better not to
that affects prejudicially the
lock in an obligation to treat further acts as
owner of copyright (s132AI);
being criminal,
particularly where there is no
4. If a person plans to upload, they
requirement of financial gain, nor of distribution
can be criminally liable for
of the copy.
possession of an article with the
intention of distributing it to an
extent that will affect prejudicially
the owner of copyright (s132AJ);
5. Sitting in the cinema
with the
camera could make a person
criminally liable for possessing a
device, intending it to be used to
make an infringing copy (s 132AL).
Criminal
Article 15.4. With respect to the offenses
AUSFTA has no equivalent provision.
It is not appropriate to ‘lock in’ such provisions
enforcement –
for which this Article requires the Parties to ACTA has an equivalent provision
at an international level. The Australian
aiding and
provide for criminal procedures and
(Article 23.4).
provisions on ‘abetting’ have not been applied
abetting
penalties, Parties shall ensure that criminal
in IP cases to date; their scope and meaning are
liability for aiding and abetting is available
Australia has liability for aiding and
unsettled. It is possible, for example, that an
under its law.
abetting. The Australian
Criminal Code intermediary could be held liable for ‘abetting’
1995 (Cth), Part 2.4, Clause 11.2
or ‘aiding’ infringement once they know that
(which applies to IP) provides that “[a] infringement is occurring. This risk will likely chill
person who aids, abets , counsels or
a legitimate commercial and innovative
procures the commission of an
activities, but is unlikely to deter underground
offence by another person is taken to
and genuinely criminal activities: what is
have committed that offence and is
another set of criminal provisions to those
punishable accordingly.” Liability
already engaged in criminal infringement?
depends on showing (a) that the
offence was in fact committed by the
Although the police are not going to be
prosecuting YouTube any time soon, engaging in
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
person so aided etc; (b) that the
conduct known to be potentially criminal can
abettor intended to abet. Liability
have other implications: for example, when
does not apply if the alleged abettor
insurance is sought. Warranties that all relevant
terminated his or her involvement,
laws are being complied with are not
and took all reasonable steps to
uncommon in various commercial contracts.
prevent the commission of the
offence. Clause 11.4 addresses
Nor would the risk of liability be confined to the
‘incitement’.
online or commercial context. Also potentially at
risk are libraries, universities, schools, perhaps
Under the
Trade Marks Act, if a
Australia Post or couriers, eBay and other online
person aids or abets or is “in any way
auction houses where trade mark infringements
directly or indirectly, knowingly
may occur, The
Trading Post which publishes
concerned in, or party to” the doing of advertisements for a company said to be
an act
outside Australia that would in
engaging in infringement. Australia would be
Australia be an offence, the person is
well-advised to retain maximum flexibility to
taken to have committed the offence
alter its laws.
in Australia: s 150.
Finally, it should be noted that Australia’s
criminal provisions, particularly in copyright law,
are extremely extensive: more so, perhaps, than
in many other countries. Since the 2006
Copyright Amendment Act, Australia has at least
33 different criminal offences in the
Copyright
Act alone: most of them specified at 3 different
levels (strict liability, summary, and indictable
offences). This of course expands the impact of
the aiding and abetting provisions in Australia as
compared with other countries.
Criminal
Article 15.5. With respect to the offences
Australian law provides for both fines
The imposition of both fines and imprisonment
enforcement –
described in Article 15.[1]-[4] above, each
and imprisonment. In general, the
is not controversial in Australia.
fines and
Party shall provide:
penalties are (in copyright law):
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT

imprisonment
(a) penalties that include sentences of
For indictable offences:
However, the reference to ‘guidelines or
imprisonment as well as monetary fines
o $60,500 per offence for an
policies’
is controversial. In 2006, the Australian
sufficiently high to provide a deterrent
individual
Law Reform Commission (ALRC) considered the
to future infringements, consistent with
o $302,500 per offence for a
question of federal sentencing and
a policy of removing the infringer’s
corporation
recommended
against grid sentencing
monetary incentive. Each Party shall
o 5 yrs imprisonment per
approaches, instead recommending that more
further establish policies or guidelines
offence
information be provided to judges (through
that encourage judicial authorities to
For summary offences:
sentencing databases and the like). The ALRC
impose those penalties at levels
o $13,200 per offence for an
also considered sentencing guideline judgments
sufficient to provide a deterrent to
individual
(which are used by some state courts including
future infringements, including the
o $66,000 per offence for a
in NSW, where the court of appeal provides
imposition of actual terms of
corporation
guidance to sentencing judges in lower courts
imprisonment when criminal
o 2 yrs imprisonment per
through the issue of a comprehensive
infringement is undertaken for
offence
judgment). Not only is the decision to issue a
commercial advantage or private
For offences of strict liability:
guideline judgment a matter for the court’s
financial gain;
$7,200 per offence.
discretion (mandating such judgments would be
If the Intellectual Property Laws
contrary to the separation of powers), but some
Amendment (Raising the Bar) Bill 2011 doubts about prescriptive attempts to guide
passes Parliament, similar sentences
judicial sentencing discretion have been
will be put in place in trade mark law.
expressed by the High Court of Australia; thus
the ALRC preferred to concentrate appeal
At a Federal level (IP crimes being
review (in the Federal Court) and provide more
crimes under federal legislation)
information rather than use more prescriptive
Australia does not have statutory
means.
guidelines or provision for guideline
judgments issued by the courts.
The last sentence – referring to imprisonment in
the case of acts done for ‘private financial gain’
The equivalent AUSFTA provision
– is also controversial. Sentencing should be a
(Article 17.11.27(a)) has the same first matter for domestic law not treaty; sentencing
sentence, but is otherwise worded
in IP should not be treated in isolation from all
differently, stating that ‘each Party
other criminal sentencing activities (as, indeed,
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
shall encourage its judicial authorities
the ACTA explicitly recognises). It would seem to
to impose fines at levels sufficient to
conflate the private and personal acts of
provide a deterrent to future
individuals in a non-commercial context with
infringements’. ACTA (Article 24)
commercial-level acts, and makes them all
contains no reference to guidelines or
(equally) criminal, which is not consistent with
policies, requiring only that parties
either historical approaches or the usual issues
‘provide penalties ... sufficiently high
that influence sentencing, such as the impact or
to provide a deterrent to future acts
harm caused by an act.
of infringement, consistently with the
level of penalties applied for crimes of
corresponding gravity’.
Criminal
Article 15.5. With respect to the offences
Australian criminal law provides for
These provisions would not change Australian
enforcement –
described in Article 15.[1]-[4] above, each
search warrants and seizure of
law.
seizure of
Party shall provide:...
‘evidential material’ which would
infringing goods,
(b) that its judicial authorities shall have
include suspected infringing material,
Similar provisions are in AUSFTA (Article
implements,
the authority to order the seizure of
implements, and documents (
Crimes
17.11.27(b)) and ACTA (Article 25).
assets and
suspected counterfeit or pirated goods,
Act 1914 (Cth), Part 1AA (dealing with
documentary
any related materials and implements
search warrants), in particular s 3E).
evidence
used in the commission of the offense,
Australian law also meets the
any assets traceable to the infringing
standard in (b) already with respect to
activity, and any documentary evidence seizure of items and their specification
relevant to the offense. Each Party shall in search warrants (
Crimes Act s 3F).
provide that items that are subject to
As for proceeds of crime and material
seizure pursuant to any such judicial
or implements, Australia has extensive
order need not be individually
orders for
proceeds and
instruments
identified so long as they fall within
of crime (an ‘instrument’ is property is
general categories specified in the
used, or intended to be used in, or in
order;...
connection with, the commission of an
offence (
Proceeds of Crime Act 2002
(Cth) s 329). Orders include search
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
orders (
Proceeds of Crime Act s 225);
orders that property not be dealt with
except as specified (or be taken into
custody) (
Proceeds of Crime Act s 15B)
and asset freezing orders (
Proceeds of
Crime Act s 17).
Criminal
Article 15.5 With respect to the offences
Copyright law specifically allows for
This would not change Australian law.
enforcement –
described in Article 15.[1]-[4] above, each
forfeiture of infringing goods and
forfeiture of
Party shall provide:...
implements used in infringement
Similar provisions are in AUSFTA (Article
assets,
(c) that its judicial authorities shall have
(they need not be
predominantly thus
17.11.27(c)) and ACTA (Article 25).
instruments and
the authority to order, among other
used) (
Copyright Act s 133). Penalties
implements
measures, the forfeiture of any assets
in trade mark are governed by the
The mandatory provision (
shall order forfeiture
traceable to the infringing activity, and
Proceeds of Crime Act 2002 (Cth),
of the proceeds of trade mark counterfeiting) is
shall order such forfeiture at least in
which allows for forfeiture orders
surely controversial, and may not be complied
cases of trademark counterfeiting; and
where the court is satisfied that
with in Australian law – although such a
(d) that its judicial authorities shall, except
certain property represents proceeds
provision is also found in AUSFTA and thus is
in exceptional cases, order
of an indictable offence or is an
common in US Free Trade Agreements from the
(i) the forfeiture and destruction of all
instrument of a serious offence
last decade or so.
counterfeit or pirated goods, and
whether the person has been
any articles consisting of a
convicted (s 48) or not (s 49). An
counterfeit mark; and
‘instrument of an offence’ means the
(ii) the forfeiture or destruction of
property is used, or intended to be
materials and implements that have
used in, or in connection with, the
been used in the creation of pirated
commission of an offence (s 329).
or counterfeit goods.
(e) that its judicial authorities have the
authority to order the seizure or
forfeiture of assets the value of which
corresponds to that of the assets
derived from, or obtained directly or
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
indirectly through, the infringing
activity.
Criminal
Article 15.5 With respect to the offences
No equivalent is found in ACTA or the
The obvious question is whether this is such a
enforcement –
described in Article 15.[1]-[4] above, each
AUSFTA.
problem that it needs to be specified in a treaty.
retention of
Party shall provide:...
I have no doubt that Australian courts would
evidence for civil
(f) that, in criminal cases, its judicial or
have the power to stay destruction or disposal
proceedings
other competent authorities shall keep
of goods if needed for evidence in civil
an inventory of goods and other material
proceedings (see eg
Proceeds of Crime Act 2002
proposed to be destroyed, and shall have
s 256).
the authority temporarily to exempt such
materials from the destruction order to
facilitate the preservation of evidence
upon notice by the right holder that it
wishes to bring a civil or administrative
case for damages28; and
Criminal
Article 15.5 With respect to the offences
This provision is TRIPs-plus (this issue is not
enforcement – ex described in Article 15.[1]-[4] above, each
mentioned in TRIPS); AUSFTA-consistent (see
officio
Party shall provide:...
Art 17.11.27(d)) and not controversial from an
prosecution
(g) that its authorities may initiate legal
Australian perspective. Police have the authority
action
ex officio with respect to the
to act
ex officio (although it is unlikely they
offenses described in this Chapter,
would do so in most cases).
without the need for a formal
complaint by a private party or right
holder.
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
Special Measures relating to enforcement in the digital environment
General
Article 16.1 Each Party shall ensure that
Australian copyright and trade mark
This provision has been transported from Article
availability of
enforcement procedures, to the extent set
law applies to the online and offline
27 of ACTA, but with changes:
enforcement in
forth in the civil and criminal enforcement
environment.
ACTA refers to any IP rights infringement;
the digital
sections of this Chapter, are available
this TPPA draft is confined to trade mark
environment
under its law so as to permit effective
and copyright.
action against an act of trademark,
The second part of ACTA (referring to
copyright or related rights infringement
‘unlawful use of means of widespread
which takes place in the digital
distribution for infringing purposes) is not
environment, including expeditious
included
remedies to prevent infringement and
The qualifying aspects of the ACTA are
remedies which constitute a deterrent to
missing: eg references to ‘implement*ing
further infringement.
the provisions] in a manner that avoids the
creation of barriers to legitimate activity,
including electronic commerce, and,
consistent with that Party’s law, preserv*ing+
fundamental principles such as freedom of
expression, fair process, and privacy.
Government use
Article 16.2 Each Party shall provide
An equivalent provision exists in
This will not impact on Australian government
of non-infringing
appropriate laws, orders, regulations,
AUSFTA: Article 17.4.9.
policy or on Australian law.
software
government-issued guidelines, or
administrative or executive decrees
Australia’s
Statement of Intellectual
providing that its central government
Property Principles for Australian
agencies not use infringing computer
Government Agencies clearly states
software and other materials protected by
that ‘In line with their general
copyright or related rights and only use
responsibility for ensuring proper and
computer software and other materials
effective use and management of
protected by copyright or related rights as
assets, agencies should put in place
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
authorized by the relevant license. These
appropriate mechanisms to protect,
measures shall provide for the regulation
monitor and prevent inappropriate
of the acquisition and management of
use or infringement of IP’ (at page 3).
software and other materials for
Principle 7 states that ‘Agencies
government use that are protected by
should have procedures in place to
copyright or related rights.
reduce the risk of infringement of the
IP rights of others’.
Online Service Provider Safe Harbours
Online service
Article 16.3 For the purpose of providing
Almost identical provisions are found
Three comments may be made about the
providers – scope enforcement procedures that permit
in the AUSFTA (Article 17.11.29), and
presence of these provisions in the TPPA draft.
of service
effective action against any act of copyright are implemented in Australia’s
providers having
infringement covered by this Chapter,
Copyright Act, Part V Div 2AA.
First, it is remarkable to see persistence in
limitations to
including expeditious remedies to prevent
promulgating these provisions in a broader
liability
infringements and criminal and civil
Australian law is not fully compliant
international context when similar provisions
remedies that constitute a deterrent to
with the AUSFTA, as the limitations on could not be negotiated in ACTA. Similar
further infringements, each Party shall
remedies are not provided to all
provisions were in the original ACTA drafts, but
provide, consistent with the framework set online service providers as defined in
could not be agreed due to the difficulty in
out in this Article:
the AUSFTA, but only to ‘carriage
reconciling something this specific with detailed,
(a) legal incentives for service providers to
service providers’ as defined in
but different, rules applying in Europe (the
cooperate with copyright29 owners in
broadcasting regulation (effectively,
Information Society Directive), Japan, and
deterring the unauthorized storage and internet access providers who provide Canada which applies a ‘notice and notice’
transmission of copyrighted materials;
network access).
rather than a ‘notice and takedown’ regime.
and
(b) limitations in its law regarding the
Second, it is remarkable to see the persistence
scope of remedies available against
in attempting to fix, for all time, which
service providers for copyright
intermediary functions warrant protection
infringements that they do not control,
through the language of subsection (b), which
initiate or direct, and that take place
states that limitations “shall be confined to
through systems or networks controlled
those functions”. The laws on which these
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
or operated by them or on their behalf,
provisions are based (the US DMCA) was drafted
as set forth in this subparagraph (b).30
prior to 1998. Functions performed by
(i) These limitations shall preclude
intermediaries in the online context are
monetary relief and provide
changing, and it is highly questionable whether
reasonable restrictions on court-
the functions listed in the TPPA text remain the
ordered relief to compel or restrain
appropriate, or the
only appropriate, ones
certain actions for the following
warranting protection from IP liability. The
functions, and shall be confined to
possibility of the need for more Safe Harbours
those functions:
has already been raised in the context of
(A) transmitting, routing, or providing
content aggregators (UK Department of Trade
connections for material without
and Industry,
DTI Consultation Document on the
modification of its content, or the
Electronic Commerce Directive: The Liability of
intermediate and transient storage
Hyperlinkers, Location Tool Services and Content
of such material in the course
Aggregators, June 2005, and
Government
thereof;
Response and Summary of Responses,
(B) caching carried out through an
December 2006). Note that in the AUSFTA there
automatic process;
is a footnote (38) at the end of (b)(i) which
(C) storage, at the direction of a user,
states that ‘Either Party may request
of material residing on a system or
consultations with the other Party to consider
network controlled or operated by
how to address under this paragraph functions
or for the service provider; and
of a similar nature to the functions identified in
(D) referring or linking users to an
paragraphs (A) through (D) above that a Party
online location by using
identifies after the entry into force of this
information location tools,
Agreement.’ A similar footnote would
not be
including hyperlinks and
appropriate in the TPPA, as it would give rise to
directories.
a situation where consultations would have to
...
occur with a whole group of countries. The
(iii) Qualification by a service provider for
appropriate course is to simply remove the
the limitations as to each function in
limitation to particular functions, in recognition
clauses (i)(A) through (D) shall be
of changing technology.
considered separately from
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
qualification for the limitations as to
Another point is that the specificity of the
each other function, in accordance with
definitions (and conditions) in the treaty text
the conditions for qualification set forth
has meant, in Australia, that as a result of the
in clauses (iv) through (vii).
equivalent provisions in the AUSFTA, the law has
ended up with multiple different definitions of
Article 16.3(b)(xii) For purposes of the
the same phenomenon – one for the Safe
function referred to in clause (i)(A),
service
Harbours, and others for domestically-
provider means a provider of transmission,
developed law. Thus in relation to caching,
routing, or connections for digital online
Australia has one definition of caching in the
communications without modification of
safe harbour (s 116AB), but then another
their content between or among points
specific to educational institutions (s 200AAA),
specified by the user of material of the
and another exception (s 43A/111A) that is
user’s choosing, and for purposes of the
addressed, in part, to caching. This leads to
functions referred to in clauses (i)(B)
confusion and incoherence.
through (D)
service provider means a
provider or operator of facilities for online
services or network access.
Conditions for
Article 16.3(b)(ii) These limitations shall
This section is not specifically
safe harbours:
apply only where the service provider does implemented in Australia’s
Copyright
neutrality
not initiate the chain of transmission of the
Act but is reflected in any event in the
material, and does not select the material
categories of activities that fall within
or its recipients (except to the extent that a the Safe Harbours.
function described in clause (i)(D) in itself
entails some form of selection).
See also AUSFTA Article 17.11.29(b)(ii)
Conditions for
Article 16.3(b)(iv) With respect to
Australia has enacted these
Even with this exception in place, there has
safe harbours:
functions referred to in clause (i)(B), the
conditions:
Copyright Act s 116AH.
been confusion in Australia about whether
caching
limitations shall be conditioned on the
proxy caching (and any other forms of active
service provider:
caching involving the exercise of human
(A) permitting access to cached material
judgment or retention of material for extended
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
in significant part only to users of its
periods of time) is an infringing activity.
system or network who have met
conditions on user access to that
material;
(B) complying with rules concerning the
refreshing, reloading, or other
updating of the cached material when
specified by the person making the
material available online in
accordance with a generally accepted
industry standard data
communications protocol for the
system or network through which
that person makes the material
available;
(C) not interfering with technology
consistent with industry standards
accepted in the Party’s territory used
at the originating site to obtain
information about the use of the
material, and not modifying its
content in transmission to subsequent
users; and
(D) expeditiously removing or disabling
access, on receipt of an effective
notification of claimed infringement,
to cached material that has been
removed or access to which has been
disabled at the originating site.
Conditions for
Article 16.3(b)(v) With respect to functions This condition has been enacted in
This condition is arguably too strict, depending
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
safe harbours –
referred to in clauses (i)(C) and (D), the
Australia in s 116AH, as a result of the
on how it is interpreted. It may be compared
hosting and
limitations shall be conditioned on the
equivalent AUSFTA provision (Article
with the European
Ecommerce Directive, under
search engines –
service provider:
17.11.29(b)(v)(A)).
which protection is denied if
the recipient of the
no financial
(A) not receiving a financial benefit
service is acting
under the control or authority of
benefit
directly attributable to the infringing
the provider. In Australia, a host loses the
activity, in circumstances where it has
benefit of the Safe Harbour if they receive
the right and ability to control such
financial benefit from infringing activity, and
activity;
have the
right and ability to control the
infringing activity. Though these conditions are
targeted at the same kind of issue, the
AUSFTA/TPPA condition is clearly stricter. One
would assume that in many cases a host would
have the right and ability to cease hosting (and
thus the right and ability to control that
infringement). The European condition only
excludes a web host who is responsible for the
user in a way that might otherwise cause them
to be vicariously liable.
Note too that right holders in Australia have
argued that network access providers receive a
financial benefit from infringing activity merely
because they can charge higher usage rates.
(But cf US, where a court has held that a service
provider conducting a legitimate business does
not receive a ‘financial benefit directly
attributable to the infringing activity’ where the
infringer makes the same kind of payment as
non-infringing users of the provider's service:
Viacom International Inc v YouTube, Inc (23 June
2010 SDNY)).
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
It may be noted that the US takes a very active
interest in the implementation of these
provisions. In Australia, the first attempted
implementation defined ‘financial benefit’
specifically to
not include ‘a benefit that merely
results from the level of activity on the carriage
service provider's system or network.’ The US
protested and this definition was removed
before the AUSFTA came into force.
Conditions for
Article 16.3(b)(v) With respect to functions Australia has enacted this
This provision implements a ‘notice and
safe harbours –
referred to in clauses (i)(C) and (D), the
requirement in s 116AH, as a result of
takedown’ system. This is not the only option: in
hosting and
limitations shall be conditioned on the
the AUSFTA Article 17.11.29(b)(v)(B).
Canada, for example, a system of ‘notice and
search engines –
service provider:
See also
Copyright Regulations 1969
notice’ operates where the material is not taken
notice and
(B) expeditiously removing or disabling
Part 3A (detailed regulations on the
down prior to notification of the owner of the
takedown
access to the material residing on its
operation of notice and takedown).
material.
system or network on obtaining actual
knowledge of the infringement or
In Australia, equivalent provisions in AUSFTA
becoming aware of facts or
have generated a highly complex set of
circumstances from which the
regulations.
infringement was apparent, such as
through effective notifications of
Statistics on the use of the system are not
claimed infringement in accordance
available. Evidence in the
iiNet case suggested
with clause (ix); and
that at least this (large) ISP receives “thousands
(C) publicly designating a representative to
of unreliable robot notices per week alleging
receive such notifications.
infringement” (
Roadshow Films Pty Ltd v iiNet
Ltd [2011] FCAFC 23 at [261]).
Note: this provision is supplemented with a
detailed side letter setting out the process.
(ix) For purposes of the notice and take
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
down process ... each Party shall
establish appropriate procedures ... for
effective notifications of claimed
infringement, and effective counter-
notifications by those whose material is
removed or disabled through mistake or
misidentification. Each Party shall also
provide for monetary remedies against
any person who makes a knowing
material misrepresentation in a
notification or counternotification that
causes injury to any interested party as a
result of a service provider relying on the
misrepresentation.
(x) [no liability for removal of material in
good faith, provided service provider takes
reasonable steps to promptly notify
affected individual and restores the
material on effective counternotification]
Conditions for
Article 16.3(b)(vi) Eligibility for the
This provision has been implemented
When a similar provision was included in an
safe harbours –
limitations in this subparagraph shall be
in Australia (s 116AH), as a result of
early draft of ACTA, it was generally believed
all types –
conditioned on the service provider:
the equivalent AUSFTA provision
that this could require a kind of ‘three strikes’ or
termination of
(A) adopting and reasonably
(Article 17.11.29(b)(vi)(A)).
graduated response system to be implemented.
repeat infringers
implementing a policy that provides
However, Australia has had this provision since
for termination in appropriate
2004, and does not have any kind of formal
circumstances of the accounts of
graduated response system. The first Australian
repeat infringers;
court to interpret this provision took the view
that all was required was some policy, and that
even a policy that more or less said that an IAP
would terminate a subscriber if ordered to do so
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
by a court was sufficient to pass muster. On
appeal, this finding was overturned, with judges
saying that the alleged policy was “no more
than a policy to obey the law”. The court
criticised the IAP’s failure to cooperate, its
failure to initiate any processes to apply the
policy, and its failure to inform its customers of
its policy. The court did not, however, provide
much guidance as to what
would be required of
such a policy, thus the issue of how strong any
ISP policy must be remains an open one.
Conditions for
Article 16.3(b)(vi) Eligibility for the
This provision has been implemented
safe harbours –
limitations in this subparagraph shall be
in Australia (s 116AH), as a result of
accommodation
conditioned on the service provider: ...
the equivalent AUSFTA provision
of technical
(B) accommodating and not interfering
(Article 17.11.29(b)(vi)(B)).
measures
with standard technical measures
accepted in the Party’s territory that
protect and identify copyrighted
material, that are developed through
an open, voluntary process by a broad
consensus of copyright owners and
service providers, that are available on
reasonable and non-discriminatory
terms, and that do not impose
substantial costs on service providers or
substantial burdens on their systems or
networks.
Safe Harbours:
Article 16.3(b)(vii) Eligibility for the
Australia has enacted this provision
This is not much of a protection for
No monitoring
limitations in this subparagraph may not
(s 116AH(2)) as a result of the AUSFTA
intermediaries. All it states is that the
safe
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
condition
be conditioned on the service provider
equivalent provision (Article
harbour conditions do not require monitoring. It
monitoring its service, or affirmatively
17.11.29(b)(vii)).
would be consistent with this provision for a
seeking facts indicating infringing activity,
country to impose monitoring obligations
except to the extent consistent with such
through other laws.
technical measures.
Cf the European
Ecommerce Directive Article 15,
which specifically states that ‘Member States
shall not impose a general obligation on
providers, when providing the services covered
by Articles 12, 13 and 14 [ie caching, providing
network access, and hosting], to monitor the
information which they transmit or store, nor a
general obligation actively to seek facts or
circumstances indicating illegal activity.’ Such
wording would be preferable.
Safe Harbours –
Article 16.3(b)(viii) If the service provider
Australia has implemented these
It is worth comparing these limitations on
limitations on
qualifies for the limitations with respect to limitations (s 116AG) as a result of the
liability to solutions proposed or implemented
remedies
the function referred to in clause (i)(A),
equivalent AUSFTA provision (Article
elsewhere.
court-ordered relief to compel or restrain
17.11.29(b)(viii)).
certain actions shall be limited to
This system basically removes the threat of
terminating specified accounts, or to
liability for an online service provider,
if they are
taking reasonable steps to block access to
found by a court to comply with the safe
a specific, non-domestic online location. If
harbour provisions. This leaves an online service
the service provider qualifies for the
provider at some risk of copyright liability
limitations with respect to any other
(damages awards for which could be significant)
function in clause (i), court-ordered relief
should their systems be found wanting in some
to compel or restrain certain actions shall
particular according to the quite stringent safe
be limited to removing or disabling access
harbour provisions.
to the infringing material, terminating
specified accounts, and other remedies
Compare this to the system that was proposed
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RELEASED UNDER THE FOI ACT 1982 BY THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT
that a court may find necessary, provided
in Canada’s recent copyright reform bill. Under
that such other remedies are the least
those proposals, specific obligations to
burdensome to the service provider
cooperate with copyright owners would have
among comparably effective forms of
been created (eg, an obligation to pass on
relief. Each Party shall provide that any
notices of infringement to users), and failure to
such relief shall be issued with due regard
comply with those obligations would lead to
for the relative burden to the service
specific remedies for that failure. Instead of
provider and harm to the copyright owner,
being on the hook for the full amount of
the technical feasibility and effectiveness
copyright damages, the online service provider
of the remedy and whether less
would have been liable for their actual wrongful
burdensome, comparably effective
act – ie failure to comply. I would argue this is a
enforcement methods are available.
preferable system to the one adopted in the
Except for orders ensuring the
TPPA text (and in Australian law) which creates
preservation of evidence, or other orders
a risk disproportionate to the ends sought to be
having no material adverse effect on the
achieved (cooperation) and hence is likely to
operation of the service provider’s
lead to overzealous policing/removal of
communications network, each Party shall
copyright material.
provide that such relief shall be available
only where the service provider has
received notice of the court order
proceedings referred to in this
subparagraph and an opportunity to
appear before the judicial authority.
Safe Harbours –
Article 16.3(b)(xi) Each Party shall establish Australia is subject to an identical
information
an administrative or judicial procedure
provision in AUSFTA Article
about alleged
enabling copyright owners who have given
17.11.29(b)(xi). Australia already has
infringer
effective notification of claimed
judicial procedures for obtaining such
infringement to obtain expeditiously from
information:
Federal Court Rules,
a service provider information in its
Order 15A.
possession identifying the alleged infringer.
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