link to page 4 link to page 4 link to page 5 link to page 5 link to page 5 link to page 5
Available online at
www.sciencedirect.com
Current Opinion in
ScienceDirect
Environmental Science & Health
Potable reuse: Which chemicals to be concerned about
Stuart J. Khan, Ruth Fisher and David J. Roser
Abstract
opportunities associated with supplementing conven-
The growth of potable reuse as a planned water supply strategy
tional drinking water supplies with appropriately treated
has led to an increased focus on the presence and significance
reclaimed water
[1,2]. This practice, known as ‘potable
of trace chemical contaminants. By the use of reclaimed
reuse’, has been formally adopted on a large scale in
wastewater as a source, potable reuse projects require serious
countries including the USA, Australia, South Africa and
consideration to be given to the range and character of chem-
Namibia. Furthermore, potable reuse occurs informally
icals which may be present and may pose unacceptable risks to
in thousands of cities, where raw drinking water is
public health if not properly managed. The first step, required to
sourced from surface waters impacted by effluent dis-
assess and manage risks, is to consider the range of chemical
charges from the wastewater treatment plants upstream
contaminants which may be present. Although it is impossible to
[3]. Such practices are increasingly being recognised and
derive an exhaustive list, it is useful to consider broad categories
referred to as ‘de facto potable reuse’
[4,5].
and the specific types of challenges that may be posed by the
chemicals within those categories. Such a broad categorisation
Despite the global prevalence of de facto potable reuse,
of chemical contaminants is presented in this review and pro-
it is generally considered that traditional drinking water
vides the basis for initial consideration by those tasked with
standards identifying ‘safe’ water quality are insufficient
assessing the water quality and treatment requirements of a
for potable reuse of reclaimed water
[6]. Compared with
potable reuse project. Chemicals, which may potentially be of
conventional water sources, reclaimed water and potable
concern in potable reuse projects, are diverse in terms of their
reuse may introduce a number of additional risks related
(anthropogenic or natural) source, chemical characteristics and
to chemical contaminants, which need to be considered
their likely human toxicity. Public health risk assessments are
[6]. These include chemicals that may be associated
further complicated by the inevitable presence of unidentified
with the wastewater source
[7], chemicals which may be
chemicals and potential impacts of ‘mixture effects’ on the
formed during conventional and advanced treatment
overall toxicity of complex, low-concentration chemical mixtures.
processes (e.g. disinfection byproducts) and chemicals
that may be released from aquifer storage or distribution
Addresses
system materials as a consequence of treated reclaimed
School of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of New South
water quality.
Wales, NSW, Australia
Corresponding author: Khan, Stuart J (
x.xxxx@xxxx.xxx.xx)
Chemicals which may be of concern in potable reuse
scenarios include a wide range of naturally occurring and
synthetic, organic and inorganic species. Some key clas-
Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health 2019,
ses of chemical hazards include heavy metals, synthetic
7:76–82
industrial organic chemicals, pesticides or their metab-
This review comes from a themed issue on Drinking water
olites, algal toxins, radionuclides, pharmaceuticals,
contaminants
oestrogenic and androgenic hormones, perfluoroalkyl
Edited by Susan Richardson and Cristina Postigo
substances, nanoparticles and disinfection byproducts.
For a complete overview see the
Issue and the
Editorial
Attempts, such as this, to categorise water quality con-
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coesh.2018.12.002
taminants are always imperfect because the assigned
2468-5844/© 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
categories are never mutually exclusive. Nonetheless,
this categorisation of potable water chemical contami-
nant classes is adopted here to provide discussion and
Keywords
insights regarding important chemical hazards.
Heavy metals, Synthetic industrial chemicals, Pesticides, Cyanotoxins,
Radionuclides, Natural and synthetic steroidal hormones, Pharma-
ceuticals, Perfluoroalkyl substances, Nanoparticles, Disinfection and
Heavy metals
oxidative byproducts.
Heavy metals may be present in municipal wastewater
at concentrations reaching the mg per litre level as a
result of industrial discharges to sewers. Some heavy
Introduction
metals such as lead, cadmium, chromium and mercury
Growing water scarcity and the threat of drought-related
have been associated with human health concerns at mg
water shortages are leading many cities to consider the
per litre concentrations in drinking water. These
Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health 2019, 7:76–82
www.sciencedirect.com
link to page 5 link to page 5 link to page 5 link to page 5 link to page 5 link to page 5 link to page 5 link to page 5 link to page 5 link to page 5 link to page 5 link to page 5 link to page 5 link to page 5 link to page 5 link to page 5 link to page 5 link to page 5 link to page 5 link to page 5 link to page 5 link to page 5 link to page 6 link to page 6 link to page 6 link to page 6 link to page 6 link to page 6 link to page 6 link to page 6 link to page 6
Potable reuse: What chemicals to be concerned about Khan et al.
77
chemicals have been subjects of regulatory control in
[37]. Additional routes of unknown significance include
public drinking water supplies for many decades, and
washing fruits and vegetables before household con-
these same regulatory requirements are equally appli-
sumption, insect repellents washed from human skin
cable to potable reuse scenarios. Most heavy metals tend
and/or washing clothes and equipment used for applying
to be lipophilic and therefore partition extensively to
pesticides. Because pesticides have been specifically
sludge during wastewater treatment
[8]. Consequently,
designed or selected for their detrimental effects on a
most concerns regarding heavy metals have been in
range of biological species, they present an obvious focus
relation to disposal and reuse of wastewater sludges
[9].
for concern regarding health risks from human exposure
Concerns relating specifically to residual concentrations
and efficacy of biological treatment processes.
in reclaimed water have been focused primarily on risks
associated with irrigation of edible crops, which may
Cyanotoxins
lead
to
elevated
human
exposure
due
to
bio-
Cyanotoxins such as microcystins, nodularins, cylin-
concentration
[10,11]. Recent work has allayed fears
drospermopsin and saxitoxins are all produced by fresh-
that heavy metals present in (non-potable) reclaimed
water cyanobacteria (blue-green algae). Under suitable
water may induce detrimental effects on fabrics during
conditions, cyanobacteria may grow in untreated or
household machine clothes washing
[12]. Some potable
partially treated wastewaters, producing these and other
reuse practices involve storage of reclaimed water by
toxins
[38]. Numerous cyanotoxins have been implicated
aquifer recharge
[13,14]. In such cases, risks of potential
as having serious impacts on human and animal health by
contamination of treated water, by dissolution of natural
the consumption of contaminated water. Many of these
geochemical substances, should be considered.
toxins are hepatotoxic, and some are neurotoxic.
Synthetic industrial organic chemicals
Radionuclides
Depending on the catchment area and the extent of the
Radionuclides, such as radioactive isotopes of strontium,
trade waste program to control chemicals at the waste-
cobalt, caesium, uranium and selenium, may enter
water source, a very wide range of synthetic industrial
sewage by natural runoff or as a result of medical or in-
chemicals and byproducts are often measurable in urban
dustrial usage
[39e
41]. In the treatment of some public
municipal wastewater treatment plant effluents at ng
water supplies, radium is removed from drinking water
per litre to mg per litre levels. Examples include plasti-
by coagulation, and the concentrated sludge may be
cisers
[15,16], biocides
[17,18], surfactants
[19], dioxins
transferred to sewage systems. Commercial laundry
[20], flame retardants
[7,21], dyes
[22], polychlorinated
detergents may also be a source of radiological contam-
biphenyls
[23] and phthalates
[24,25]. For many of
ination of wastewaters
[42]. Radionuclides are carcino-
these chemicals, prolonged exposure is known to pre-
genic and mutagenic substances.
sent chronic health risks including cancer
[26e28], and
many are environmentally persistent
[29]. The ability of
Natural and synthetic steroidal hormones
advanced treatment processes to control a range of
Natural steroidal hormones such as oestradiol, oestrone
pollutants which can be at transiently elevated con-
and testosterone are excreted to sewage by people.
centrations is a current area of research interest. One
During the last three decades, natural steroidal hor-
such chemical which has presented particular challenges
mones have been widely implicated in a range of
in some circumstances is 1,4-dioxane, which is used
endocrinological abnormalities in aquatic species that
both as a solvent and as a stabiliser for other organic
are affected by sewage effluent
[43,44]. Related impacts
solvents. 1,4-Dioxane is a known groundwater contam-
via human endocrinological pathways have been widely
inant in some regions
[30,31], but it also presents
postulated and are sources of public concern regarding
particular difficulties for control in some potable reuse
drinking water quality
[45,46]. However, human health
projects because of its poor removal by reverse osmosis
risk assessments have generally concluded that these
treatment
[32]. Consequently, 1,4-dioxane has been a
chemicals are unlikely to cause public health impacts at
major driver for the increased application of advanced
concentrations normally encountered in reclaimed
oxidation processes for potable reuse
[33,34].
wastewaters
[46e48]. Reported removals of steroidal
hormones by conventional sewage treatment plants have
Pesticides
been variable, but removal to below current analytical
A variety of chemical pesticides, including herbicides and
detection limits (approx. 1 ng/L) is commonly observed
insecticides, have been detected in municipal waste-
in well-performing plants
[49,50]. Further removal may
water effluents at ng per litre concentrations
[35,36].
be achieved by advanced treatment
[51].
Pesticides may enter municipal wastewater systems by a
variety of means, including stormwater influx and illegal
Pharmaceuticals
direct disposal to sewage systems. Washing domestic pet
Dozens of pharmaceutical substances (and their active
dogs with insecticide solutions is a known pathway for
metabolites), along with illicit drugs, have been detec-
these chemicals to be discharged to municipal sewers
ted in treated and untreated municipal wastewaters
www.sciencedirect.com
Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health 2019, 7:76–82
link to page 6 link to page 6 link to page 6 link to page 6 link to page 6 link to page 6 link to page 6 link to page 6 link to page 6 link to page 6 link to page 7 link to page 7 link to page 7 link to page 6 link to page 7 link to page 7 link to page 7 link to page 7 link to page 7 link to page 7 link to page 7 link to page 7 link to page 7 link to page 7 link to page 7
78
Drinking water contaminants
globally
[52e54]. These chemicals are excreted to
dispersions
[66]. Furthermore, nanoparticle bioavail-
sewage by people and direct disposal of unused drugs by
ability and toxicity may be influenced by transformation
households
[55,56].
Because
pharmaceuticals
are
processes caused by other substances, such as humic
designed to instigate biological responses, their inherent
acids or sulphides, present in the wastewater treatment
biological activity and the diverse range of compounds
plant
[69].
identified in sewages (and the environment) have been
cause for considerable concern. Specific public health
Disinfection and oxidative byproducts
concerns have not been identified for most classes of
Disinfection and chemical oxidation by ultraviolet (UV)
drugs at ambient drinking water concentrations, but
radiation and chemical oxidants is practiced to ensure
issues regarding the presence of antibiotics and the role
pathogen inactivation and to reduce concentrations of
they may play in antibacterial resistance proliferation
some target chemical contaminants in reclaimed water.
have received much attention
[57,58]. A broad range of
These
processes
induce
chemical
reactions
and
pharmaceutically active compounds have been reported
transformations and thus are well-known to produce
in drinking waters as a consequence of unplanned in-
chemical byproducts
[70,71]. As chlorine-based disin-
direct potable reuse
[59].
fection processes are used in potable reuse, well-known
chlorination
disinfection
byproducts
such
as
tri-
Perfluoroalkyl substances
halomethanes and haloacetic acids also commonly occur
Perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) such as perfluor-
[72].
ooctanoic acid, perfluorohexane sulfonate and perfluor-
ooctane sulfonate are persistent and toxic chemicals
In a potable reuse scenario, the combination of UV and
that have recently emerged as drinking water contami-
hydrogen peroxide is particularly relevant because it is
nants of concern. Although much of the focus has been
now used as an important contaminant barrier in a
directed to these three examples, more than 400 PHASs
number of large potable water reuse projects
[73]. Other
have been identified in the aquatic environment
[60].
UV-based advanced oxidation processes, such as UV/free
They also arise from the breakdown of fluorotelomer
chlorine and UV/persulfate, are also rapidly emerging as
alcohols, which are widely used in consumer products
attractive approaches for the removal of trace organic
such as greaseproof food wrappers and stain-resistant
contaminants.
Each
of
these
processes
produces
carpet treatments. A range of perfluorinated chemicals
distinctly different concentrations and characters of
have been widely reported in municipal wastewater ef-
byproducts, as a consequence of the different reactive
fluents
[61,62]. Owing to the presence of precursor
intermediates formed
[74,75]. Alternative potable reuse
compounds in wastewater treatment plant influents,
treatment trains, such those that involve ozonation
additional PFAS is known to be produced during bio-
followed by biological activated carbon, are also prone to
logical wastewater treatment
[63,64]. Water treatment
the formation of disinfection byproducts
[76,77].
trials have shown that conventional carbon adsorbents
are only partially effective for the removal of PFAS in a
As a disinfection byproduct, N-nitrosodimethylamine
potable reuse scenario
[65].
(NDMA) presents a number of significant challenges for
potable reuse. These stem partially from this contami-
Nanoparticles
nant’s status as a suspected human carcinogen with a
An important group of emerging environmental con-
very high potency (i.e., a high cancer slope factor)
taminants of concern is nanoparticles or nanomaterials
[78,79]. This has led to variable water quality objectives,
[66]. These are commonly defined as particles between
which in some jurisdictions require NDMA concentra-
about 1 and 100 nm in diameter that show properties
tions <10 ng/L. Although NDMA has been associated
that are not found in bulk samples of the same material.
with many water and wastewater systems, potable reuse
Nanoparticles isolated from wastewater treatment
systems may be particularly problematic if elevated
plants have been found to be composed of 70%e85%
levels of ammonia are present. Chloramination is the
carbon and low amounts of oxygen, heavy metals and
most common process that results in formation of
other elements
[67]. It is apparent that the municipal
NDMA during water and wastewater treatment
[80].
wastewater loads of some nanoparticles, such as TiO
However, ozonation of wastewater can also produce high
2
and ZnO, may exhibit seasonal variability
[68]. This is
concentrations
[80]. Furthermore, advanced oxidation
assumed to be partially a consequence of these nano-
processes may degrade larger molecules to smaller sub-
particles being used in functionalised products, such as
stances, which can subsequently act as precursors for
sunscreens and moisturising lotions, which have sea-
additional NDMA production during advanced water
sonal use patterns
[68]. The toxicological concerns for
treatment
[77]. Challenges encountered by NDMA, in
nanoparticles are related not only to their chemical
particular, have led to efforts towards the development
composition but also to physical parameters including
of an inline detection system for this compound and
particle size, shape, surface area, surface chemistry,
other N-Nitrosamines
[81,82]. It has been observed
porosity, aggregation tendency and homogeneity of
that, as potable reuse becomes increasingly important
Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health 2019, 7:76–82
www.sciencedirect.com
link to page 7 link to page 7 link to page 7 link to page 7 link to page 7 link to page 7 link to page 7
Potable reuse: What chemicals to be concerned about Khan et al.
79
for drinking water supply, NDMA formation and miti-
greatest public health risks are contaminants or trans-
gation strategies will become increasingly more impor-
formation products, for which molecular identities are as
tant
[80].
yet unknown or their significance not yet appreciated.
Furthermore, there are important acknowledged gaps in
Conclusions
our
toxicological
understanding
of
complex
low-
The various classes of chemical contaminants identified
concentration mixtures, as drinking water contami-
in this short review represent those for which most
nants are inevitably presented as.
attention is currently paid in regard to potable water
reuse projects. They include some reclaimed water
Based on current knowledge, summarised in this short
contaminants (eg, many pharmaceuticals and hormones)
review, the chemical contaminants most warranting
that are now reasonably well understood and others for
concern in potable reuse projects are dependent upon
which a working understanding is still emerging (eg.
system-specific
characteristics,
most
notably,
the
nanoparticles and some disinfection and oxidative
advanced water treatment processes included in the
byproducts). Nonetheless, hundreds of new contami-
treatment train. For potable reuse treatment trains,
nants continue to be identified, and new sensitive
which include very broadly effective processes such as
analytical methods are developed each year
[83]. The
reverse osmosis, concern will be focused on the rela-
rate of such new developments far exceeds the rate at
tively small subset of chemicals, known to be poorly or
which any regulatory regime or potable reuse project
unreliably removed by these processes. For reverse
operator could hope to adapt.
osmosis, this tends to include small (low molecular
weight), uncharged molecules such as trihalomethanes,
In 2017, the World Health Organization published
NDMA and 1,4-dioxane. Consequently, these chemicals
‘Potable Reuse: Guidance for Producing Safe Drinking
are often targeted for monitoring.
Water’
[84]. These WHO potable reuse guidelines state
that the management of potable reuse schemes should
Owing to current limitations in the ability to meaning-
be based on the framework for safe drinking water,
fully assess public health risks associated with individual
including water safety plans. These guidelines do not
and mixture chemical contaminants in drinking water,
provide any new guideline concentrations for chemical
many researchers and practitioners working on potable
contaminants, beyond what are already provided in the
reuse risk management have advocated alternatives to
WHO Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality. This is
direct monitoring of contaminants of concern. One such
based on the fact that chemicals of emerging concern,
approach has been the identification of a limited
such as pharmaceuticals and personal care products,
number of measurable chemical contaminants, such as
tend to be present at concentrations, which are gener-
those highlighted in this review, to be used as ‘in-
ally low and generally do not warrant setting of new
dicators’ for the potential presence and effective
guideline values. Nonetheless, in specific circum-
removal of a much wider range of unidentified con-
stances, where a chemical with no guideline value is
taminants
[86,87]. Another widely advocated approach
identified as a concern, approaches for developing
involves the assessment of water quality by bioassay
screening values are identified to support investigations
effect-based measurements
[88e90]. Although both
into potential risks and the need for implementation of
approaches require further research and development,
additional control measures. The principal reference is
they both have the potential to play an important role in
to the framework presented in the Australian Guidelines
monitoring the performance of chemical contaminant
for Water Recycling
[85]. Arguably, this concept should
removal for potable reuse projects.
also be one that is generally applied to drinking water,
beyond just planned potable reuse. This would be
Conflict of interest statement
particularly appropriate in situations of known, or
Nothing declared.
suspected, de facto potable reuse.
References
A conspicuously absent topic in this review, and almost
Papers of particular interest, published within the period of review,
have been highlighted as:
all others of its nature, is a detailed discussion of toxi-
cology. The vast majority of chemical contaminants,
* of special interest
considered to be of relevance to potable reuse projects,
have very limited bases upon which to draw conclusions
1.
Lahnsteiner J, van Rensburg P, Esterhuizen J: Direct potable
reuse - a feasible water management option. J Water Reuse
that ambient concentrations present meaningful risks to
Desalination 2018, 8:14–28.
public health. A few have been assessed to present little
2.
Hui I, Cain BE: Overcoming psychological resistance toward
or no risk to public health, whereas most suffer from a
using recycled water in California. Water Environ J 2018, 32:
lack of relevant information necessary to draw such
17–25.
conclusions. It is highly possible, perhaps likely,that the
3.
Wang ZM, Shao DG, Westerhoff P: Wastewater discharge
impact on drinking water sources along the Yangtze River
chemical contaminants responsible for imparting the
(China). Sci Total Environ 2017, 599:1399–1407.
www.sciencedirect.com
Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health 2019, 7:76–82
80
Drinking water contaminants
4.
Wells MJM, Mullins GA, Bell KY, Da Silva AK, Navarrete EM:
22.
Choi YY, Baek SR, Kim JI, Choi JW, Hur J, Lee TU, Park CJ,
Fluorescence and quenching assessment (EEM-PARAFAC)
Lee BJ: Characteristics and biodegradability of wastewater
of de Facto potable reuse in the neuse river, North Carolina,
organic matter in municipal wastewater treatment plants
United States. Environ Sci Technol 2017, 51:13592 –13602.
collecting domestic wastewater and industrial discharge.
Water 2017, 9.
5.
Chaudhry RM, Hamilton KA, Haas CN, Nelson KL: Drivers of
microbial risk for direct potable reuse and de Facto reuse
23.
Kiedrzynska E, Urbaniak M, Kiedrzynski M, Jozwik A,
treatment schemes: the impacts of source water quality and
Bednarek A, Gagala I, Zalewski M: The use of a hybrid
blending. Int J Environ Res Publ Health 2017, 14.
Sequential Biofiltration System for the improvement of
nutrient removal and PCB control in municipal wastewater.
6.
Garner E, Zhu N, Strom L, Edwards M, Pruden A: A human
Sci Rep 2017, 7.
exposome framework for guiding risk management and ho-
listic assessment of recycled water quality. Environ Sci Water
24.
Salaudeen T, Okoh O, Agunbiade F, Okoh A: Fate and impact of
Res Technol 2016, 2:580–598.
phthalates in activated sludge treated municipal wastewater
on the water bodies in the Eastern Cape, South Africa.
7.
Wang J, Tian Z, Huo YB, Yang M, Zheng XC, Zhang Y: Moni-
Chemosphere 2018, 203:336–344.
toring of 943 organic micropollutants in wastewater from
municipal wastewater treatment plants with secondary and
25.
Wu Q, Lam JCW, Kwok KY, Tsui MMP, Lam PKS: Occurrence
advanced treatment processes. J Environ Sci 2018, 67:
and fate of endogenous steroid hormones, alkylphenol
309–317.
ethoxylates, bisphenol A and phthalates in municipal sewage
treatment systems. J Environ Sci 2017, 61:49 –58.
8.
Udayanga WDC, Veksha A, Giannis A, Lisak G, Chang VWC,
Lim TT: Fate and distribution of heavy metals during thermal
26.
Lim JE, Nam C, Yang J, Rha KH, Lim KM, Jee SH: Serum
processing of sewage sludge. Fuel 2018, 226:721–744.
persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and prostate cancer
risk: a case-cohort study. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2017, 220:
9.
Ostman M, Lindberg RH, Fick J, Bjorn E, Tysklind M: Screening
849–856.
of biocides, metals and antibiotics in Swedish sewage sludge
and wastewater. Water Res 2017, 115:318–328.
27.
Fry K, Power MC: Persistent organic pollutants and mortality in
the United States, NHANES 1999-2011. Environmental Health;
10.
Troldborg M, Duckett D, Allan R, Hastings E, Hough RL: A risk-
2017:16.
based approach for developing standards for irrigation with
reclaimed water. Water Res 2017, 126:372–384.
28.
Alawi M, Masaad M, Al-Hussaini M: Comparative study of
persistent organic pollutant (POP) (chlorinated pesticides,
11.
Tran QK, Schwabe KA, Jassby D: Wastewater reuse for agri-
PCBs, and dioxins/furans) concentrations in cancer-affected
culture: development of a regional water reuse decision-
human organs with those of healthy organs. Environ Monit
support model (RWRM) for cost-effective irrigation sources.
Assess 2018, 190.
Environ Sci Technol 2016, 50:9390–9399.
29.
Corsolini S, Ademollo N, Martellini T, Randazzo D, Vacchi M,
12.
Pham TTN, Mainali B, Ngo HH, Guo WS, Listowski A, O’Halloran K,
Cincinelli A: Legacy persistent organic pollutants including
Miechel C, Corby N: Effect of heavy metals in recycled water
PBDEs in the trophic web of the Ross Sea (Antarctica).
used for household laundry on quality of cloth and washing
Chemosphere 2017, 185:699–708.
machine. Desalination Water Treat 2015, 54:178–190.
30.
Karges U, Becker J, Püttmann W: 1,4-Dioxane pollution at
13.
Page D, Bekele E, Vanderzalm J, Sidhu J: Managed aquifer
contaminated groundwater sites in western Germany and its
recharge (MAR) in sustainable urban water management.
distribution within a TCE plume. Sci Total Environ 2018,
Water 2018, 10.
619–620:712–720.
14.
Bekele E, Page D, Vanderzalm J, Kaksonen A, Gonzalez D:
31.
Adamson DT, Piña EA, Cartwright AE, Rauch SR, Hunter
Water recycling via aquifers for sustainable urban water
Anderson R, Mohr T, Connor JA: 1,4-Dioxane drinking water
quality management: current status, challenges and oppor-
occurrence data from the third unregulated contaminant
tunities. Water 2018, 10.
monitoring rule. Sci Total Environ 2017, 596–597:236–245.
15.
Sun XL, Peng JY, Wang MH, Wang JC, Tang CL, Yang LX, Lei H,
32.
Warsinger DM, Chakraborty S, Tow EW, Plumlee MH, Bellona C,
Li F, Wang XL, Chen JP: Determination of nine bisphenols in
Loutatidou S, Karimi L, Mikelonis AM, Achilli A, Ghassemi A,
sewage and sludge using dummy molecularly imprinted solid-
Padhye LP, Snyder SA, Curcio S, Vecitis CD, Arafat HA,
phase extraction coupled with liquid chromatography tandem
Lienhard JH: A review of polymeric membranes and pro-
mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2018, 1552:10–16.
cesses for potable water reuse. Prog Polym Sci 2018, 81:
209–237.
16.
Hrubik J, Glisic B, Tubic A, Ivancev-Tumbas I, Kovacevic R,
Samardzija D, Andric N, Kaisarevic S: Toxicological and
33.
Li W, Patton S, Gleason JM, Mezyk SP, Ishida KP, Liu H: UV
chemical investigation of untreated municipal wastewater:
photolysis of chloramine and persulfate for 1,4-dioxane
fraction- and species-specific toxicity. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf
removal in reverse-osmosis permeate for potable water
2016, 127:153–162.
reuse. Environ Sci Technol 2018, 52:6417–6425.
17.
Merel S, Benzing S, Gleiser C, Di Napoli-Davis G, Zwiener C:
34.
Chuang Y-H, Chen S, Chinn CJ, Mitch WA: Comparing the UV/
Occurrence and overlooked sources of the biocide carben-
monochloramine and UV/free chlorine advanced oxidation
dazim in wastewater and surface water. Environ Pollut 2018,
processes (AOPs) to the UV/hydrogen peroxide AOP under
239:512–521.
scenarios relevant to potable reuse. Environ Sci Technol 2017,
51:13859–13868.
18.
Liu WR, Yang YY, Liu YS, Zhang LJ, Zhao JL, Zhang QQ,
Zhang M, Zhang JN, Jiang YX, Ying GG: Biocides in wastewater
35.
Supowit SD, Sadaria AM, Reyes EJ, Halden RU: Mass balance
treatment plants: mass balance analysis and pollution load
of fipronil and total toxicity of fipronil-related compounds in
estimation. J Hazard Mater 2017, 329:310–320.
process streams during conventional wastewater and
wetland treatment. Environ Sci Technol 2016, 50:1519–1526.
19.
Berge A, Wiest L, Baudot R, Giroud B, Vulliet E: Occurrence of
multi-class surfactants in urban wastewater: contribution of a
36.
Blackbeard J, Lloyd J, Magyar M, Mieog J, Linden KG, Lester Y:
healthcare facility to the pollution transported into the sewerage
Demonstrating organic contaminant removal in an ozone-
system. Environ Sci Pollut Control Ser 2018, 25:9219–9229.
based water reuse process at full scale. Environ Sci Water Res
Technol 2016, 2:213–222.
20.
Urbaniak M, Kiedrzynska E, Grochowalski A: The variability of
PCDD/F concentrations in the effluent of wastewater treat-
37.
Teerlink J, Hernandez J, Budd R: Fipronil washoff to municipal
ment plants with regard to their hydrological environment.
wastewater from dogs treated with spot-on products. Sci
Environ Monit Assess 2017, 189.
Total Environ 2017, 599:960–966.
21.
Aigars J, Suhareva N, Poikane R: Distribution of poly-
38.
Pastich EA, Gavazza S, Case MCC, Florencio L, Kato MT:
brominated diphenyl ethers in sewage sludge, sediments,
Structure and dynamics of the phytoplankton community
and fish from Latvia. Environments 2017, 4.
Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health 2019, 7:76–82
www.sciencedirect.com
Potable reuse: What chemicals to be concerned about Khan et al.
81
within a maturation pond in a semiarid region. Braz J Biol
improvements with direct consiequences for future potable reuse
2016, 76:144–153.
projects.
39.
Xu LJ, Wang JL: The application of graphene-based materials
51.
Barbosa MO, Moreira NFF, Ribeiro AR, Pereira MFR, Silva AMT:
for the removal of heavy metals and radionuclides from water
Occurrence and removal of organic micropollutants: an
and wastewater. Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol 2017, 47:
overview of the watch list of EU Decision 2015/495. Water Res
1042–1105.
2016, 94:257–279.
40.
Pratama MA, Takahara S, Munakata M, Yoneda M: Estimation
52.
Tran NH, Reinhard M, Gin KYH: Occurrence and fate of
of radiocesium dietary intake from time series data of radio-
emerging contaminants in municipal wastewater treatment
cesium concentrations in sewer sludge. Environ Int 2018, 115:
plants from different geographical regions-a review. Water
196–204.
Res 2018, 133:182–207.
41.
Arafat AA, Salama MHM, El-Sayed SA, Elfeel AA: Distribution of
53.
Togola A: Review of wastewater, surface water and ground-
natural radionuclides and assessment of the associated
water contamination by pharmaceuticals. Environnement,
hazards in the environment of Marsa Alam-Shalateen area,
Risques & Santé 2018, 17:7–14.
Red Sea coast, Egypt. J Radiat Res Appl Sci 2017, 10:219–232.
54.
Binh VN, Dang N, Anh NTK, Ky LX, Thai PK: Antibiotics in the
42.
Vukanac IS, Kandic AB, Djurasevic MM, Seslak BZ, Celikovic IT,
aquatic environment of Vietnam: sources, concentrations,
Jevremovic AM, Bogojevic SA: Radionuclide content in laundry
risk and control strategy. Chemosphere 2018, 197:438–450.
detergents commercally available on the Serbian market and
assessment of radioogical environmental hazards. Nucl
55.
Lacorte S, Luis S, Gomez-Canela C, Sala-Comorera T,
Technol Radiat Protect 2017, 32:366–370.
Courtier A, Roig B, Oliveira-Brett AM, Joannis-Cassan C,
Aragones JI, Poggio L, Noguer T, Lima L, Barata C, Calas-
43.
Matthiessen P, Wheeler JR, Weltje L: A review of the evidence
Blanchard C: Pharmaceuticals released from senior resi-
*
for endocrine disrupting effects of current-use chemicals on
dences: occurrence and risk evaluation. Environ Sci Pollut
wildlife populations. Crit Rev Toxicol 2018, 48:195–216.
Control Ser 2018, 25:6095–6106.
This paper provides a very timely review of the diverse claims that have
been made in the scientific literature regarding endocrine-mediated
56.
Kinrys G, Gold AK, Worthington JJ, Nierenberg AA: Medication
adverse effects of chemicals on wildlife populations. By comparing
disposal practices: increasing patient and clinician education
the apparent impacts of current use chemicals with residues of legacy
on safe methods. J Int Med Res 2018, 46:927–939.
environmental contaminants, this work reveals that, with the exception
57.
Schathauser BH, Kristofco LA, de Oliveira CMR, Brooks BW:
of the widespread impacts of estrogenic hormones on fish, effects from
Global review and analysis of erythromycin in the environ-
many legacy chemicals may be more significant than current-use
ment: occurrence, bioaccumulation and antibiotic resistance
chemicals.
hazards. Environ Pollut 2018, 238:440–451.
44.
Nazari E, Suja F: Effects of 17 beta-estradiol (E2) on aqueous
58.
Kumar A, Pal D: Antibiotic resistance and wastewater: corre-
organisms and its treatment problem: a review. Rev Environ
lation, impact and critical human health challenges. J Environ
Health 2016, 31:465–491.
Chem Eng 2018, 6:52–58.
45.
Wee SY, Aris AZ: Endocrine disrupting compounds in drink-
59.
Yang Y, Ok YS, Kim KH, Kwon EE, Tsang YF: Occurrences and
*
ing water supply system and human health risk implication.
removal of pharmaceuticals and personal care products
Environ Int 2017, 106:207–233.
(PPCPs) in drinking water and water/sewage treatment
This paper is important for the focussing of concerns regarding
plants: a review. Sci Total Environ 2017, 596:303–320.
endocrine disrupting chemicals on potential risks to humans via
drinking water supply. The authors propose a holistic system, incor-
60.
Xiao F: Emerging poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances in the
porating continuous research in drinking water supply system moni-
*
aquatic environment: a review of current literature. Water Res
toring and the incorporation of multi-barrier preventative measures to
2017, 124:482–495.
reduce human exposure to the risks associated with EDCs through
The issue of emerging poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances in water is
drinking water consumption.
extremely topical with major hot-spots being identified in cities around
the world. This review reveals that there are more than 400 new poly-
46.
Shen Y, Kong DD, Teng YG, Wang YF, Li J: An assessment of
and perfluoroalkyl substances reported to have been detetected in
the presence and health risks of endocrine-disrupting
aqueous samples. They have been identified in natural waters, fish,
chemicals in the drinking water treatment plant of Wu Chang,
sediments, wastewater, activated sludge, soils, aqueous film-forming
China. Hum Ecological Risk Assessment 2018, 24:1127–1137.
foams, and commercial fluoropolymer surfactants. The risks and un-
47.
Van Zijl MC, Aneck-Hahn NH, Swart P, Hayward S, Genthe B, De
certainties associated with these chemicals will likely prevent chal-
Jager C: Estrogenic activity, chemical levels and health risk
lenges for potable reuse projects in the future.
assessment of municipal distribution point water from
61.
Man YB, Chow KL, Tsang YF, Lau FTK, Fung WC, Wong MH:
Pretoria and Cape Town, South Africa. Chemosphere 2017,
Fate of bisphenol A, perfluorooctanoic acid and perfluor-
186:305–313.
ooctanesulfonate in two different types of sewage treatment
48.
Shi P, Zhou SC, Xiao HX, Qiu JF, Li AM, Zhou Q, Pan Y,
works in Hong Kong. Chemosphere 2018, 190:358–367.
Hollert H: Toxicological and chemical insights into represen-
62.
Sedlak MD, Benskin JP, Wong A, Grace R, Greig DJ: Per-and
tative source and drinking water in eastern China. Environ
polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in San Francisco Bay
Pollut 2018, 233:35–44.
wildlife: temporal trends, exposure pathways, and notable
49.
Ting YF, Praveena SM: Sources, mechanisms, and fate of
presence of precursor compounds. Chemosphere 2017, 185:
steroid estrogens in wastewater treatment plants: a mini
1217 –1226.
review. Environ Monit Assess 2017, 189.
63.
Eriksson U, Haglund P, Karrman A: Contribution of precursor
50.
Tiedeken EJ, Tahar A, McHugh B, Rowan NJ: Monitoring,
compounds to the release of per- and polyfluoroalkyl sub-
*
sources, receptors, and control measures for three European
stances (PFASs) from waste water treatment plants
Union watch list substances of emerging concern in
(WWTPs). J Environ Sci 2017, 61:80–90.
receiving waters - a 20 year systematic review. Sci Total En-
64.
Chen HR, Peng H, Yang M, Hu JY, Zhang Y: Detection,
viron 2017, 574:1140–1163.
occurrence, and fate of fluorotelomer alcohols in municipal
This systematic review is foucsed on the three chemical contaminants
wastewater treatment plants. Environ Sci Technol 2017, 51:
most likely to drive advanced wastewater treatment developments in
8953 –8961.
Europe throuhg the coming decade. These are 17-beta-estradiol, 17-
alpha-ethynylestradiol, and diclofenac. These three chemicals were
65.
Inyang M, Dickenson ERV: The use of carbon adsorbents for
added to the EU watch list of emerging substances to be monitoring in
the removal of perfluoroalkyl acids from potable reuse sys-
2013, which was updated in 2015 to comprise 10 substances/groups of
tems. Chemosphere 2017, 184:168–175.
substances in the field of water policy. The focus for these chemicals is
on managing ecotoxicological risks, but the control measures, which
66.
Wu JK, Zhu GC, Yu R: Fates and impacts of nanomaterial
are put in place are likely to also provide signiciant water quality
contaminants in biological wastewater treatment system: a
reviewww. Water Air Soil Pollut 2018, 229.
www.sciencedirect.com
Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health 2019, 7:76–82
82
Drinking water contaminants
67.
Hu XG, Ren CX, Kang WL, Mu L, Liu XW, Li XK, Wang T,
80.
Sgroi M, Vagliasindi FGA, Snyder SA, Roccaro P: N-Nitro-
Zhou QX: Characterization and toxicity of nanoscale frag-
sodimethylamine (NDMA) and its precursors in water and
ments in wastewater treatment plant effluent. Sci Total Environ
wastewater: a review on formation and removal. Chemo-
2018, 626:1332–1341.
sphere 2018, 191:685–703.
68.
Choi S, Johnston M, Wang GS, Huang CP: A seasonal obser-
81.
Kodamatani H, Roback SL, Plumlee MH, Ishida KP, Masunaga H,
vation on the distribution of engineered nanoparticles in
Maruyama N, Fujioka T: An inline ion-exchange system in a
municipal wastewater treatment systems exemplified by TiO2
chemiluminescence-based analyzer for direct analysis of N-
and ZnO. Sci Total Environ 2018, 625:1321–1329.
nitrosamines in treated wastewater. J Chromatogr A 2018,
1553:51 –56.
69.
Khr S, Schneider S, Meisterjahn B, Schlich K, Hund-Rinke K,
Schlechtriem C: Silver nanoparticles in sewage treatment plant
82.
Fujioka T, Tanisue T, Roback SL, Plumlee MH, Ishida KP,
effluents: chronic effects and accumulation of silver in the
Kodamatani H: Near real-time N-nitrosodimethylamine moni-
freshwater amphipod Hyalella azteca. Environ Sci Eur 2018, 30.
toring in potable water reuse via online high-performance
liquid chromatography-photochemical reaction-chem-
70.
von Gunten U: Oxidation processes in water treatment: are we
iluminescence. Environ Sci Water Res Technol 2017, 3:
on track? Environ Sci Technol 2018, 52:5062–5075.
1032 –1036.
71.
Miklos DB, Remy C, Jekel M, Linden KG, Drewes JE, Hubner U:
83.
Richardson SD, Temes TA: Water analysis: emerging con-
Evaluation of advanced oxidation processes for water and
taminants and current issues. Anal Chem 2018, 90:398–428.
wastewater treatment - a critical review. Water Res 2018, 139:
118–131.
84.
World Health Organization: Potable reuse: guidance for producing
safe drinking water. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO; 2017. 978-92-4-
72.
Furst KE, Pecson BM, Webber BD, Mitch WA: Tradeoffs between
151277-0.
pathogen inactivation and disinfection byproduct formation
during sequential chlorine and chloramine disinfection for
85.
Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council, Environment
wastewater reuse. Water Res 2018, 143:579–588.
Protection and Heritage Council, National Health and Medical
Research Council: Australian Guidelines for water recycling:
73.
Khan SJ, Walker T, Stanford BD, Drewes JE: Advanced treat-
managing health & environmental risks (phase 2) -
ment for potable water reuse. In Advanced oxidation processes
Augmentation of drinking water supplies. In National water
for water treatment: fundamentals and applications. Edited by
quality management strategy; 2008. Canberra.
Stefan MI, London: IWA Publishing; 2017.
86.
Jones SM, Chowdhury ZK, Watts MJ: A taxonomy of chemicals
74.
Varanasi L, Coscarelli E, Khaksari M, Mazzoleni LR, Minakata D:
of emerging concern based on observed fate at water
Transformations of dissolved organic matter induced by UV
resource recovery facilities. Chemosphere 2017, 170:153–160.
photolysis, Hydroxyl radicals, chlorine radicals, and sulfate
radicals in aqueous-phase UV-Based advanced oxidation
87.
Drewes JE, McDonald JA, Trinh T, Storey MV, Khan SJ: Chem-
processes. Water Res 2018, 135:22–30.
ical monitoring strategy for the assessment of advanced
water treatment plant performance. Water Sci Technol 2011,
75.
Hou SD, Ling L, Dionysiou DD, Wan YR, Huang JJ, Guo KH,
63:573–579.
Li XC, Fang JY: Chlorate formation mechanism in the pres-
ence of sulfate radical, chloride, bromide and natural organic
88.
Rosenmai AK, Lundqvist J, le Godec T, Ohisson A, Troger R,
matter. Environ Sci Technol 2018, 52:6317–6325.
Hellman B, Oskarsson A: In vitro bioanalysis of drinking water
from source to tap. Water Res 2018, 139:272–280.
76.
Chuang YH, Mitch WA: Effect of ozonation and biological
activated carbon treatment of wastewater effluents on for-
89.
Leusch FDL, Aneck-Hahn NH, Cavanagh JAE, Du Pasquier D,
mation of N-nitrosamines and halogenated disinfection
Hamers T, Hebert A, Neale PA, Scheurer M, Simmons SO,
byproducts. Environ Sci Technol 2017, 51:2329–2338.
Schriks M: Comparison of in vitro and in vivo bioassays to
measure thyroid hormone disrupting activity in water ex-
77.
Li D, Stanford B, Dickenson E, Khunjar WO, Homme CL,
tracts. Chemosphere 2018, 191:868–875.
*
Rosenfeldt EJ, Sharp JO: Effect of advanced oxidation on N-
nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) formation and microbial ecol-
90.
Escher BI, Ait-Aissa S, Behnisch PA, Brack W, Brion F,
ogy during pilot-scale biological activated carbon filtration.
*
Brouwer A, Buchinger S, Crawford SE, Du Pasquier D, Hamers T,
Water Res 2017, 113:160–170.
Hettwer K, Hilscherova K, Hollert H, Kase R, Kienle C, Tindall AJ,
This paper is important for revealing how some oxiditative treatment
Tuerk J, van der Oost R, Vermeirssen E, Neale PA: Effect-based
processes can lead to enhanced formation of N-nitrosodimethylamine
trigger values for in vitro and in vivo bioassays performed on
(NDMA) in downstream treatment processes via the production of
surface water extracts supporting the environmental quality
increased concentration of precursors. The study highlights the need to
standards (EQS) of the European Water Framework Directive.
evaluate NDMA formation prior to full-scale implementation of potable
Sci Total Environ 2018, 628–629:748–765.
reuse applications.
This paper is important for pushing forward the science around the use
of biological assays to characterise water quality. Due to the un-
78.
Li XF, Mitch WA: Drinking water disinfection byproducts (DBPs)
certainties associated with complex mixtures of trace chemical con-
and human health effects: multidisciplinary challenges and
taminants, direct assessement of toxicity and ecotoxicity risks will likely
opportunities. Environ Sci Technol 2018, 52:1681–1689.
play an increasingly important role in assessing and managing safe
drinking water for future potable reuse projects.
79.
Fan CC, Lin TF: N-nitrosamines in drinking water and beer:
detection and risk assessment. Chemosphere 2018, 200:48–56.
Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health 2019, 7:76–82
www.sciencedirect.com
Document Outline
